THE LATE Dr. SAM AS HE LIKED TO BE CALLED, WROTE THIS BOOK THAT I
CONSIDER TO BE THE BEST BOOK ON "WOMEN'S ROLE IN THE CHURCH"— YES
LONG AND THOROUGH, BUT THE SUBJECT NEEDS TO BE COVERED IN DEPTH, AND
DR. SAM DOES JUST THAT. SO PLEASE BE DETERMINED TO READ IT ALL FROM
BEGINNING TO END.
THE TRUTH AND THE INFORMATION WILL BE ONE MORE STEP IN GROWING IN
GRACE AND KNOWLEDGE OF OUR LORD AND SAVIOR CHRIST JESUS— Keith Hunt
Women's Role in the Church #2
Ministry in the Old Testament
WOMEN'S ROLE IN THE CHURCH #2 by the late Dr. Samuele Bacchiocchi CHAPTER I Ministry of Women in the Old Testament What role should women fill in the church today? To provide a Biblical answer to this question it is necessary to examine first of all the religious roles of women in the Bible. Such an examination is more complex than it might first appear. First, the Bible covers a broad canvas of time: almost two millennia separate the nomadic culture of Abraham's time from the urban culture of Paul's time. Second, both the civil and religious roles of women seem to be paradoxical: at times women filled important public civil and religious positions such as judges or prophetesses, while at other times they functioned primarily within the home. Objective. This chapter aims to give the reader a brief overview of the religious roles women have filled during the Old Testament times. Since women's roles in religious life cannot be divorced from their roles in social life, some consideration will also be given to the latter. PART I MAN AND WOMAN AT CREATION To appreciate the social and religious roles of women in Old Testament times, it is important to understand the different functional roles between men and women. The foundational information on this subject is found in the opening chapters of Genesis, which will be examined at length in chapter 3. As it will be shown, the relationship between man and woman in the creation story is presented as being one of both equality and subordination. Equality in Being The account of the creation of man and woman is first given in Genesis 1:27-28 and then expanded in Genesis 2:18-24. Genesis 1 speaks of the creation of mankind in these words: "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them" (v. 27). The concern of this text is not just with the creation of the first human being but of the whole human race. The English word "man" is a translation of the Hebrew 'adam which can be translated equally well as "human being" or "mankind." In other words Genesis 1:27 tells us that God created mankind in two sexes, as male and female, and both of them equally reflect His image. This means that there is an essential equality in being between men and women. It also means that sexual differentiations are good because they are part of God's original purpose for the human race. Subordination. Genesis 2 complements the account of chapter 1 by explaining how God created Eve out of Adam's rib to be "a helper fit for him" (v. 18). The fact that God created Eve out of Adam's body ("rib") suggests both equality and subordination. The woman is equal to man because she is made of the same substance of Adam's body and is taken from his side to be his equal. Yet the woman is subordinate to man because she is created second and from and for man. The priority of Adam's formation and the derivation of woman from man, as we shall see in chapter 6, are seen in Scripture (1 Tim 2:13; 1 Cor 11:8-9) as typifying the headship role God called man to fulfill in the home and in the church. Woman's subordination, however, does not imply inferiority but complementarity. Contrary to the patriarchal system, the woman is seen in Genesis 2 as the helpmate of man and not as his property. As Susan T. Foh perceptively points out: The man and the woman knew each other as equals, both in the image of God, and thus each with a personal relationship to God. Neither doubted the worth of the other nor of him/herself. Each performed his/her task in a different way; the man as the head and the woman as his helper. They operated as truly one flesh, one person. In one body does the rib rebel against or envy the head? 1 The happy relationship of equality in being and subordination in function which existed in Eden was largely disrupted as a result of the Fall. The rule of love was replaced by domination, tyranny, manipulation and struggle. Some of the Old Testament legislations, such as the one regulating divorce (Deut 24:1-4), must be seen as temporary accommodation to the sinful realities of the time. Yet, in spite of cultural accommodations, it is still possible to see the outworking of the original principle of equality and submission in the social and religious roles of women in Old Testament times. The following examples will illustrate this point. PART II WOMEN AND PRIVATE WORSHIP Members of the Covenant There is no question that women played a less conspicuous role than men in the worship of the covenant community of Israel. Not only could women not receive the sign of the covenant, circumcision, but also they could not function as leaders of the household in most cultic acts. This fact has led some like L. Koehler to conclude that the old covenant discriminated against women: "It is a covenant with those who are competent to enter into such a thing; that is to say with men; they represent the people ... woman has no place in this revelation, therefore she is a constant danger to the worship of Yahweh." 2 This conclusion is obviously wrong because, as Walther Eichrodt points out, "The congregation of Yahweh includes the family ... neither age or sex bestow any special privileges." 3 Women not only shared with men in the blessings and responsibilities of the covenant, but they were also vital to the fulfillment of its blessings, which included long life, prosperity, children and land (Deut 5:29-33). Women shared equally with men in the blessings of worship by resting on the Sabbath (Ex 20:10), listening to the reading of the law (Deut 31:9-13) and rejoicing before the Lord. Headship of Man Women's lack of circumcision is not seen as excluding them from the covenant, because they are never despised as "uncircumcised." In fact, the introduction of circumcision as a covenant sign in Genesis 17:10-14 is followed immediately by the special blessing upon Sarah as "a mother of nations" (vv. 15-21). The reason for women's exclusion from circumcision, aside from physical differences, could be that the rite was seen as the sign of the functional headship role which marked out the men as the ones who would represent their families before God. 4 As Calvin says, "Although God promised alike to males and females what he afterwards sanctioned by circumcision, he nevertheless consecrated, in one sex, the whole people to himself." 5 The same reason may explain why a mother was ceremonially unclean for seven days after the birth of a son and fourteen days after the birth of a daughter. "The difference in time," as Susan T. Foh explains, "may be to mark the difference between the sexes from birth. In connection with the headship of man, the boy is received into the covenant community before the girl (as Adam was created first), and this time difference affects the mother's ceremonial cleanness." 6 Examples such as these suggest that the socio-religious role of women in ancient Israel was governed by the creation principle of equality and subordination discussed above. Learning and Keeping the Law The Israelite woman was equally responsible with the man for learning and keeping God's law. Moses commanded all the Israelites to attend the public worship gatherings in which God's law was taught: "Assemble the people, men, women, and little ones, and the sojourner within your towns, that they may hear and learn to fear the Lord your God, and be careful to do all the words of this law" (Deut 31:12). At the time of Nehemiah when the people gathered to hear the law, women too were in attendance: "And Ezra the priest brought the law before the assembly, both men and women and all who could hear with understanding" (Neh 8:2). Women had a natural place in the worship assembly of God's people which heard His word and was expected to obey it (Deut 13:6-11; 17:2, 5; 29:18; 2 Chron 15:1213). Prayer The participation of women in the religious life of Israel extended beyond the hearing and obeying of the law. They were free to approach God in prayer in just the same way as the men. Several women such as Hannah, Rebekah, and Sarah, are mentioned as praying (1 Sam 1:10; Gen 25:22; 30:6, 22; 21:6-7). A Shunammite woman told her husband to set up a guest room for Elisha and later on to arrange for a servant to escort her to the house of the prophet (2 Kings 4:9-10, 20-23). Women such as Rebekah (Gen 25:22), Hagar (Gen 21:17), Jeroboam's wife (1 Kings 14:1-4), and Hannah (1 Sam 1:9-11) inquired of God independently of their husbands. Home Teacher The greatest religious influence of the Hebrew mother was undoubtedly in the home. Proverbs admonishes children to heed the instruction of both father and mother: "Hear, my son, your father's instruction, and reject not your mother's teaching" (Prov 1:8). "The home," writes a Jewish scholar, "is the real temple of woman, the education of her children is her divine service, and her family is her congregation." 7 It is noteworthy that in the history of the kings of Israel and Judah the name of each king's mother is mentioned, presumably to the shame of those mothers who reared evil men and to the praise of those who instilled principles of righteousness in their sons who became great kings. It is equally significant that Scripture gives us the mother's name of such great spiritual leaders as Moses, Samuel, Jesus, John the Baptist, Timothy, undoubtedly because these godly women made a significant contribution to the success of their sons ministry. Vows A widow could make her vows without any interference (Num 30:9). A married woman, however, came under the authority of her husband and a betrothed woman of her father. Their vows could be revoked by their husbands or fathers within 24 hours. Otherwise the vows would stand. As Susan T. Foh rightly explains, The authority to nullify vows is an expression of the headship of the husband and makes sense if we consider how the wife's vows might affect her husband. He might have to pay for his wife's extravagance in money or goods or have to suffer from deprivation of his conjugal rights for a time. It is not women per se who cannot make their own vows. It is only if their position is under the God-established authority of husband or father. 8 Noteworthy is the fact that women like men, could take the Nazirite vows which involved a high degree of devotedness (Num 6:221). Clarence J. Vos points out that because of the cleansing regulations, "the Nazirite vow ... brought one in some respect to the level of consecration of a high priest." 9 It is very significant therefore that both men and women were equally eligible to take this vow. PART III WOMEN AND PUBLIC WORSHIP Festivals and sacrifices. Women participated not only in individual and family worship but also in several forms of public worship. The Mosaic law expected women to be present at the great festivals of Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles (Deut 12:7; 16:1114; 1 Sam 1 :lf.). Their attendance, however, was not obligatory, presumably because of their responsibilities at home. The majority of sacrifices were brought by men as representative of their household, but there are indications that women also in certain instances were expected to act independently in bringing their own sacrifices (Lev 12:6; 15:29). Manoah and his wife are described as participating together in offering a sacrifice to the angel of the Lord (Judges 13:15-20). Hannah, in spite of the presence of her husband, Elkanah, plays a major role in bringing a sacrifice to the house of the Lord at Shiloh, in presenting the child to Eli, and in praying a psalm of praise (1 Sam 1:24-27; 2:1-10). In his book Woman in Old Testament Worship, Clarence J. Vos offers this insightful comment regarding the story of Hannah: It is evident that Hannah was at the sanctuary and near enough to the priest to have her seemingly unusual conduct be observed by him. There is therefore, no hint that women were supposed to be kept at a distance from the sanctuary. Finally we should note that after Eli has rebuked her it does not seem improper that she, a woman, defend herself; and her defence is immediately accepted. In all this we receive the impression that Hannah, the woman, moved as one who enjoys a large margin of cultic freedom and respect. 11 Ministry at the Sanctuary Women contributed to the sanctuary in two ways: through their gifts and their services. They brought their gifts for the building of the tabernacle, not through their fathers or husbands, but individually and personally (Ex 35:22). Special mention is made of the things women made with their hands (Ex 35:25-26) and of the laver of bronze which was made "from the mirrors of the ministering women who ministered at the door of the tent of meeting" (Ex 38:8). Reference to "the women who served at the entrance to the tent of meeting" is also found in 1 Samuel 2:22. There is scholarly debate regarding the nature of the service rendered by these women at the entrance of the tabernacle. 12 Whatever the nature of their service these women did have a recognized function at the tabernacle. We have also several examples of women participating in the worship of the temple by singing. Ezra speaks of "two hundred male and female singers" (Ezra 2:65; 1 Chron 25:5-6; 2 Chron 35:25). The Psalmist suggests that women played a vital role in the choir of the tabernacle: "Thy solemn processions are seen, O God, the processions of my God, my King, into the sanctuary--the singers in front, the minstrels last, between them maidens playing timbrels" (Ps 68:24-25). Women also rendered a significant service in national religious songs and dances. Exodus reports that "Miriam, the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and dancing" (Ex 15:20). Women in Office The fact that the Old Testament assigns to women a subordinate role in the religious and social life--in accordance with the functional subordination established by God at creation,--did not prevent some women from serving as prophetess (2 Kings 22:14; Neh 6:14), judge (Judges 4:4), and even queen (though a wicked usurper, 2 Kings 11:3). The case of Deborah stands out because, though a woman, she functioned as both a judge and prophet in Israel. The book of Judges introduces her in an impressive way: Now Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth, was judging Israel at that time. She used to sit under the palm of Deborah ... and the people of Israel came up to her for judgement. She sent and summoned Barak the son of Abinoam ... and said to him, "The Lord, the God of Israel, commands you, 'Go, gather your men at Mount Tabor...." (Judges 4:4-6). There is no indication in this story that the people of Israel or the commander of the army, Barak, resented the spiritual and civil leadership of Deborah because she was a woman. The Old Testament does not exclude women from leadership positions in general but only from the role of priests. The reason for this exclusion, as it will be shown later, was not cultural but theological. A Woman Prophet The story of Huldah, the prophetess, exemplifies even more explicitly the important ministry that women fulfilled within the religious life of ancient Israel. Desiring to know the fate of his nation, King Josiah sent the high priest and several of his notables to the prophetess Huldah to "inquire of the Lord for me, and for the people and for all Judah" concerning the newly found book of the law (2 Kings 22:13-14). The fact that King Josiah sent these men, not to Jeremiah or Zephaniah who were contemporary prophets, but to the prophetess Huldah, strongly indicates that in Old Testament times there was little if any prejudice against the spiritual leadership and ministry of women. The very existence of female prophets points to the considerable religious influence women could legitimately exercise. This is also corroborated by the fact that Joel predicted a future widespread manifestation of the gift of prophecy among both men and women (Joel 2:28-29). No Priestesses In view of the important religious leadership roles women like Miriam, Deborah, Huldah, exercised in the Israelite society, it is important to ask: "Why women were excluded from the priesthood?" Two major reasons are generally given and both of them are incorrect. The first reason is the alleged frequent ritual impurity of women. Elisabeth M. Tetlow clearly states: "A major reason why women were excluded from the priesthood and from full participation in the temple cult was their frequent ritual impurity." 13 This reason lacks both Biblical and practical support. Biblically there is absolutely no suggestion that women were excluded from the priesthood because of their monthly menstrual flow which rendered them ceremonially unclean for seven days (Lev 15:19-24). The truth of the matter is that men were also frequently ritually unclean. In fact every time a man had a discharge of semen during sexual intercourse, he was unclean until the evening (Lev 15:1-12). This would obviously happen not just once a month, as in the case of the woman's menstrual cycle. Margaret Howe, a leading feminist and a British scholar, acknowledges the validity of this observation: The emission of semen by the male was also a defilement and disqualified him from officiating in the holy place. As a result, it became customary for priests to abstain from sexual intercourse for the duration of their priestly service. However, it was recognized that an emission of semen could take places at times other than copulation, and this was equally a defilement (Lev 15:16-18). Indeed, the male emission of semen can occur with more frequency and less predictability than the menstrual flow in a woman. As priestly service was, in any case, intermittent, it is not clear why menstruation in itself would disqualify a woman from priesthood. 14 It is noteworthy that "an unnatural discharge from male organs made the man unclean for seven days after the discharge had ceased (Lev 15:1-15)." 15 A man was unclean for seven days also when he had sexual intercourse with a woman during her menstrual period (Lev 15:24). If all these frequent ritual uncleanness did not disqualify men from serving as priests why should it disqualify women? Could not women serve at the temple like men on a rotating basis (1 Chron 24; Luke 1:5, 9), according to their ritual status? Practically, the argument is discredited by the fact that women did serve in a limited role at the tabernacle. If ritual impurity were the factor for the exclusion of women from the priesthood, why then were they not excluded also from ministering at the entrance of the tabernacle (Ex 38:8; 1 Sam 2:22)? Considerations such as these indicate that the argument about ritual impurity is a fabrication of those who are bent on believing that the Old Testament is sexist and biased against women. Danger of Sacred Prostitution The second major reason given for the exclusion of women from the Old Testament priesthood, is the need that existed "to avoid the dangers of the fertility cults and sacred prostitution." 16 It is argued that "the sacred prostitution of old Canaanite cults was still too vivid a memory for the intervention of a woman in the celebration of sacred rites not to appear immediately ambiguous and suspect." 17 This argument falls short on at least two counts. First, the fact that some of the pagan priestesses served as prostitutes cannot be a valid reason for God to exclude Israelite women to function as exemplary priestesses at the sanctuary. A legitimate practice cannot be prohibited because of its perversion. The sons of Eli "lay with the women who served at the entrance to the tent of meeting" (1 Sam 2:22). There is no indication, however, that these prostitutional acts resulted in the abolition of the priesthood in general or of the ministry of women at the entrance of the sanctuary in particular. If the argument were valid, then not even men should have functioned as priests because of the danger of male prostitution which the Bible views as more abominable than female prostitution, by calling the male cult prostitutes "dogs" (Deut 23:18; Rev 22:15). Second, there are indications that many, if not most, of the pagan priestesses in the ancient world, lived celibate and devoted lives. Some of the Babylonian priestesses lived in cloisters. 18 The women priest who officiated, for example at the temples of Vesta, Apollo, Athena, Polias, Dionysius, as well as in the various mystery religions, were in most cases either celibate or very continent in their lifestyles. 19 In the light of the foregoing considerations we conclude that the reason for the exclusion of women from the priesthood was not because of their frequent ritual impurity or the danger of sacred prostitution. Rather, the true reason is to be found in the unique Biblical view of the role the priest fulfilled as representative of the people to God. The Representative Role of the Priest The priesthood developed through several stages in the Old Testament. During patriarchal times the head of the household or of the tribe fulfilled the priestly function of representing his household to God. Thus Noah (Gen 8:20), Abraham (Gen 22:13), Jacob (Gen 35:3), and Job (Job 1:5) each served as representative priest of his family. With the establishment of the theocracy at Sinai and the erection of the tabernacle, God appointed the tribe of Levi to serve as priests in place of the first-born or head of each family (Num 3:6-13). While God called all the people of Israel, male and female, to be "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" (Ex 19:5-6; cf. Is 61:6), as a result of the Sinai's apostasy the Levites were chosen to serve as representative for the whole nation, because of their allegiance to God (Ex 32:26-29). When the priests ministered they acted as the representatives of the people. It was because of this representative role which the priest fulfilled as the head of the household of Israel, that women were excluded from the priesthood. A woman could minister as prophet because a prophet was primarily a communicator of God's will, but she could not function as a priest because a priest was appointed to act as the representative of the people to God and of God to the people. As James B. Hurley rightly observes, "The Mosaic provision [for an exclusively male priesthood] stands in a historical continuum and continues the practice of having representative males serve to officiate in public worship functions." 20 "The fact that most pagan religions of the time did have priestesses, as well as priests," notes John Meyendorff, "shows that a male priesthood was the sign of a specifically biblical, i.e. Jewish and Christian identity." 21 This unique, counter-cultural Jewish and Christian identity stems not from the religious genius of Judaism or Christianity but from divine revelation which established a functional headship role which man is to fulfill in the home and in the household of faith. CONCLUSION Our survey of the religious roles of women in the Old Testament shows that women played a most vital role both in the private and public religious life of ancient Israel. As full members of the covenant community, women participated in the study and teaching of the law to their children, in offering prayers and vows to God, in ministering at the entrance of the sanctuary, in singing and in the prophetic ministry of exhortation and guidance. The religious roles of women, however, were different from those of men, in accordance with the principle of equality of being and subordination in function which is implicit in the creation story. The principle of appointive male leadership in the home and in public worship was threatened then as it is today, and would have been easily lost had it not been for many of the Old Testament laws which were designed to distinguish between the roles that God has called men and women to fulfill in the socio-religious life. Clarence J. Vos, though himself an Evangelical feminist, reaches essentially the same conclusion: Although it is clear from the Old Testament that woman takes a different role in Israel's worship than man, there is no evidence to consider her an inferior creature. As a member of the religious community we can view her as taking an equal place among the people of God. It was not her task to lead the family or tribe in worship; normally this was done by the patriarch or the eldest male member. That a male was appointed to this function no doubt rested on the idea that the male was considered the "first-born" of the human family--a motif discernable in the creation story of Genesis 2. 22 The implications of our conclusion regarding the ministry of women in the Old Testament for the ministry of women today will be discussed after our examination of the witness of the New Testament. At this point it suffices to note that the religious roles of women in the Old Testament were different and yet complementary to that of men, in accordance with the Biblical principle of equality in being and subordination in function.
SO IT WAS AND IS, AS YOU READ THE OLD TESTAMENT. WOMEN HAD VARIOUS ROLES OR FUNCTIONS TO PLAY, IN THE EVERYDAY LIFE OF ISRAEL. THEY DID NOT BEMOAN THEMSELVES OVER NOT BEING ABLE TO GET THE POSITION OF BEING HIGH-PRIEST, OR HAVING THE JOBS THE LEVITE MALES WERE GIVEN IN THE WORK OF THE TEMPLE. THERE WAS ALL KINDS OF WORK IN ISRAEL FOR ALL KINDS OF PEOPLE. AS KING DAVID SAID, "I'D RATHER BE A DOOR KEEPER IN MY LORD'S KINGDOM, THAN SIT WITH THE KINGS OF THIS EARTH AND THEIR SPLENDOR." Keith Hunt |
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