CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN #4

 The Celtic Church in Britain #4

The Importance of Scripture

by Leslie Hardinge (1972)     

     

ROLE OF THE SCRIPTURES

By far the most influential book in the development of the

Celtic, was the Bible. It moulded the theology and guided the

worship of the early Christians. It suggested rules of conduct

and transformed the ancient laws of Irish and Welsh pagans into

Christian statutes. It lay at the foundation of the education of

children and youth, and sparked the genius of poets and song

writers. It provided inspiration for the scribes of history and

hagiography and affected the language of the common people,

becoming the dynamic for the production of the most beautiful

hand-written books ever made. A study of the beliefs and

practices of the Celtic Church compels the historian to consider

the role played by the Bible in their development.

PATRICK

Let us begin with Patrick and the Bible. One of the most

arresting characteristics of the writings of Patrick is the

number of biblical citations they contain. Besides direct

quotations there are many phrases filled with imagery borrowed

directly from the Scriptures. In the short "Confession" and the

shorter "Letter to Coroticus," N. J. White has counted three

hundred and forty examples from fortysix books of the Bible.

Because of this Patrick was styled "the man of the lasting

language, i.e., the holy Canon". There is nothing in Patrick's

works which indicates his acceptance of the teachings of church

fathers or the canons of councils. He appealed solely to the

Scriptures in support of what he believed, practised, and

propagated: "The words are not mine, but of God and the apostles

and prophets, who have never lied, which I have set forth in

Latin. He that believeth shall be saved, but he that believeth

not shall be damned. God hath spoken." This attitude, as will be

noted in the next chapter, is typical of the Celtic teacher. He

took for granted that the Bible was God's Word and could and

should be understood by all, and carefully obeyed. The "Hymn of

Secundus" eulogized Patrick's regard for the Bible as the basis

for his theology:

     He finds in the sacred volume the sacred treasure ... Whose

     words are seasoned with the divine oracles ... Whose seeds

     are seen to be the Gospel of Christ.... He sings Hymns with

     the Apocalypse, and the Psalms of God, On which also he

     discourses, for the edification of the people of God;

     Which Scripture he believes, in the Trinity of the sacred

     name, And teaches the One substance in Three Persons.

     (L.Bieler, "The Works of St. Patrick, p.64-65)

(The Trinity teaching of Patrick may not have been anywhere near

the same as the Roman church. We certainly do have three parts to

the present Godhead - the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit - the

Scriptures makes this very clear, but difining the three parts is

altogether another subject, that I have expounded on my website

in various other studies - Keith Hunt)

Gildas the Briton, possibly from Bangor-on-Dee, apparently

referred to no book but the Bible in "De Excidio," which, like

Patrick's works, is replete with quotations from the Scriptures

only. His citations show a thorough grasp of its meaning, and his

use of its imagery suggests that he was completely saturated with

its language. Gildas' copy of the Scriptures appears to have been

the "Itala."

Bede's testimony to Celtic missionaries was that they "diligently

followed whatever pure and devout customs that they learned in

the prophets, the Gospels, and the writings of the Apostles". And

of Aidan and his friends he added: "His life is in marked

contrast with the apathy of our own times, for all who

accompanied him, whether monks or lay-folk, were required to

meditate, that is, either to read the Scriptures or to learn the

Psalms. This was their daily occupation wherever they went."

Following the example of Patrick, Columba and Celtic Christians

for centuries made the Scriptures the foundation of their

studies. The Lives of the saints often vouch for the fact that

the Bible, and especially the Psalter, lay at the basis of their

teachings. St Samson, for example, was "very often immersed

(sensatus) in searching and in learning the Holy Scriptures". A

conclusion as to which biblical books were to be regarded as

canonical was evidently reached early in the story of Celtic

Christians, but it is not known when and by whom this decision

was made. 

(Yes it is known and can be known, as other studies on this

website prove to you from history that the Gospel came to Britain

not many years after the death and resurrection of our Lord

Jesus. Hence as the NT formed so did the canon the the NT

Scriptures and the contact with Britain would maintain the Celtic

British church had the canon of the NT Scriptures as did the

first apostles and the apostle John who lived to near the end of

the first century AD. - Keith Hunt)

The Old-Irish glossator observed that certain unnamed heretics

had read the canon of the Old and New Testaments but had

perverted them. The Muratorian Fragment from the ancient Celtic

settlement at Bobbio, compiled about 800 from a much earlier

document, points to the interest of Celtic scholars in what were

inspired Scriptures. Jerome's list of the canonical books of the

Bible could hardly have reached Ireland before his Vulgate, which

was believed to have arrived there towards the end of the sixth

century.

(And all of that has nothing to do with true Christianity coming

to Britain shortly after the start of the NT apostolic church.

The days of Jerome and the Roman church in Britain is far from

the reality of true Christianity reaching Britain in the first

first century AD - Keith Hunt)

The Bible most popular with Christians of Celtic lands was the

Old Latin. It is called the "Itala." This version was

pre-Hieronymian, and similar to the recension known in Africa and

Gaul before 383.Patrick's New Testament citations may possibly

include two from the Vulgate, but it is probable that either

Jerome himself followed the Old Latin, or that the scribe, when

later copying Patrick's works, inadvertently inserted the version

he knew from memory. N. J. White called attention to the fact

that: "It is noteworthy that some of the readings found in St

Patrick's Latin writings suggest that he used manuscripts

emanating from south Gaul. In particular, there are several

remarkable readings common to him and the Latin translation of

Irenaeus." J. F. Kenney observed that, even though many of these

Gallican and African versions have perished, "the Irish were the

most important of the agents who have transmitted to us Old Latin

texts...." In the copy of the Pauline Epistles used by the

Wiirtzburg glossator, Colossians occurs between 2 Thessalonians

and 1 Timothy. A careful study of the sequence of the New

Testament books cited by Gildas shows that in his Bible

Colossians had this position too. This is also the case in the

New Testament in the Book of Armagh, and would seem to be

characteristic of the Scriptures used by the Celts. It is

interesting to discover that this is also a feature of the

African version employed by Augustine, Primasius, and Isidore of

Seville.

(What was going on in Rome, with Patrick, and the Celtic church

by the time Rome came to Britain about 500 AD has little to do

with the centuries before. By Patrick's time and certainly after

Rome came to Britain, much truth had been lost by not only Rome

but by Celtic Christianity, and the influence of Rome after 500

AD just perverted more of Celtic Christianity - Keith Hunt)

It is very likely that the copy of the version of the Hermit of

Bethlehem was first brought to Ireland by Finnian (+ 579), who 

crossed the sea with "the law", for "it was Findia that first

brought the whole Gospel to Ireland", where its arrival caused

great rejoicing.

(Ireland was not England, Wales, and Scotland where true

Christianity first came not long after the death and resurrection

of our Lord Jesus - Keith Hunt)

The desire to use the purest version of the Bible, and to make

sense of it free from all speculation, is underlined by the

comminatory legend of Maelsuthain O'Carrol, "chief doctor of the

western world in his time". He was accused of interpolating

biblical passages with his own words and theories. Michael

summoned three of Maelsuthain's pupils and announced that he

would be "sent to hell for ever for this and other sins". The

three students flew to earth in the form of doves and warned

their unfortunate master of his impending fate. Maelsuthain

repented, vowing, "I will put no sense of my own into the canons,

but such as I shall find in the divine books." This is an

illustration of Celtic expositors' constant attempts, to make the

Bible its own interpreter, without recourse to the commentaries

of others, either of the fathers of the Church or of their

contemporaries.

(Yes some still had the courage to stand up to the Roman church -

Keith Hunt)

But with the Romanizing of the Celtic Christians the Old Latin

was gradually modified with phrases from the Vulgate. Of the

Gospels a well-developed "Irish version" finally evolved, in

which are readings not found in any surviving copy of the Old

Latin. These variant "versions" point to the individuality and

eclecticism of both scribe and exegete. When compared with the

deep regard for the sanctity of the holy Scriptures shown by the

early Celtic Christians, writers after the time of the Danish

invasions placed less and less stress upon the Bible and more on

tradition, eventually appealing to the fabulous and foolish. But,

before this interest in the authority of the divine oracles had

waned, the Old-Irish glossator emphasized that "the authority of

the word of God ... is greater than the word of men"? adding: "It

is not possible to doubt God's words, i.e., to say that what the

word of God may say should not be true. It will effectively

accomplish the work to which it is put. As pure silver is used

for some purpose, so with the words of the Lord, a deed is

effected from them at once after they have been spoken." The

Scriptures were accorded paramount authority, and were listened

to as the voice of the Holy Ghost addressing his people in the

character of a king upon his throne. An admonition which grew

from this view is voiced by Cummian in his penitential: "He who

takes up any novelty outside the Scriptures, such as might lead

to heresy, shall be sent away."

Even during the twelfth century, when the views of Celtic

Christianity had all but disappeared, the Bible was remembered in

eulogy:

     One of the noble gifts of the Holy Spirit is the Holy

     Scripture, by which all ignorance is enlightened, and all

     worldly affliction comforted, by which all spiritual light

     is kindled, by which all debility is made strong. For it is

     through the Holy Scripture that heresy and schism are

     banished from the Church, and all contentions and divisions

     reconciled. In it is well-tried counsel and appropriate

     instruction for every degree in the Church. It is through it

     the snares of demons and vices are banished from every

     faithful member in the Church. For the Divine Scipture is

     the mother and the benign nurse of all the faithful who

     meditate and contemplate it, and who are nurtured by it,

     until they are chosen children of God by its advice.

     (O'Curry, "Letures" - p.376-7, from the "Lebar Brecc")

Whence did the ancient Celtic Christians receive such a

veneration for the Scriptures? It probably came with their ideas

regarding th religious life. Cassian's (+ 435) influence in

western monachism shows the pervasive effects of his Collations

and Institutions. In a conversation which Germanus had with his

friend the Abbot Nestorus, Germanus inquired as to the best way

of expelling from the mind the notions of pagan authors. The

Abbot replied in effect: "Read the sacred books with the same

zeal that you read heathen writers and your thoughts will be

pure." And so the pious Christian bent his energies to mastering

the Bible. Cassian set aside the commentators and advised his

disciples to do the same; devoting their time to prayer, fasting,

and meditation, so as to reach an understanding of the

Scriptures, promising that God would reveal to them in their

dreams the sense of the passages which they thus considered.

Cassian also stressed the need for active labour of all kinds, to

be combined with a study of the Scriptures, as the best education

for life and eternity. So there developed schools attached to his

communities. The pupils were taught to read the Bible. They

practised writing by multiplying copies of parts of the

Scriptures. With this increasing stress on biblical studies

devotion to philosophy and pagan authors, and even the

commentaries of the early church leaders, diminished. As there

were no fixed criteria of criticism or interpretation, each

preacher and teacher was a law to himself in his expounding of

the Bible.

Of all Celtic lands Ireland became the cradle of this movement

towards this deeper study of the Scriptures. Many came from

Britain and the Continent to sit at the feet of the great Irish

teachers. A seventeeth-century poem by a Continental scholar, B.

Moronus, published by Ussher, eloquently pictures this trend:

     Now haste Sciambri from the marshy Rhine; Bohemians now

     desert their cold north lands; Auvergne and Holland, too,

     add to the tide. Forth from Geneva's frowning cliffs they

     throng; Helvetia's youth by Rhone and Saline

     Are few: the Western Isle is now their home. All these from

     many lands, by many diverse paths Rivals in pious zeal, seek

     Lismore's famous seat.

Finnian founded the school at Clonard which earned this great

renown, and was said on occasion to have had three thousand

students. These Irish colleges trained ministers not only for

Celtic churches but also for some adhering to the Anglo-Saxons.

Agilbert, successor of the Roman missionary Birinus and

evangelist to the West Saxons, had fitted himself for more

proficient service by "studying the Scriptures in Ireland for

many years". Even Anglo-Saxon noblemen pursued their education in

Ireland in preparation for careers in their own church. In 664

Britain was stricken by the plague. While Ireland was also

afflicted, some regarded it as a safer place, and, arriving

there, devoted their time to "studying under various teachers in

turn. The Scots welcomed them all kindly, and, without asking for

any payment, provided them with books and instruction." And so a

love for the Scriptures was fostered and extended.

(And so while the Roman church did its dirty work of proclaiming

errors, falsehoods, man-made traditions, and claiming to be the

only true church, that was founded by Peter - Keith Hunt)

It is significant that from Irish schools comes the earliest

surviving commentary produced in the British Isles, the Wurtzburg

glosses on the Epistles of St Paul. Bede's commentaries are lost;

Alcuin wrote only on Titus, Philemon, and Hebrews. M. L. W.

Laistner thus succinctly noted the contribution of Ireland:

     The preoccupation of Irish scholars with Biblical exegesis,

     which has sometimes been assumed without adequate proof, has

     very recently been placed beyond doubt and shown to have

     been intense and widespread ... Many of these productions

     of the Irish show certain traits in common. Characteristic

     phrases recur, there is a fondness for displaying erudition

     by explaining the sense of words or names in Latin, Greek or

     Hebrew. Above all, many stress the literal interpretation of

     the Bible, a fact which to a great extent explains their

     ultimate disappearance, because by the ninth century the

     predominant trend in exegesis was to follow Gregory and Bede

     and to lay the chief emphasis on the allegorical and moral

     sense of Scripture.

(Ya Roman theology took its hold on Britain by the 9th century

and what little remained of true Christianity through the Celtic

church was fast being obliterated - Keith Hunt)

This literalistic attitude toward the Bible must never be lost

sight of in any study of Celtic Christian beliefs and practices.

While the earliest writers of the Celtic Church, Patrick, Gildas,

Adamnan, to mention three, made practically no use of

noncanonical books of Scripture, hagiographers and homilists

after the tenth century used the stories and imagery in them

freely. The Book of Enoch provided frequent inspiration: for

example, prayers were addressed to the seven archangels for each

day of the week, and reference was made to the seven heavens. But

there is no evidence that the writer has direct access to the

Apocrypha. R. E. McNally rightly summarized its role in Celtic

theology: "A careful study of the occurrence of the apocryphal

literature as source material seems to indicate that the Bible

commentators used it mainly to supply inconsequential,

imaginative details and almost never to displace the

traditionally Christian sense of Scripture." 

But while the early Celtic writers quoted from neither councils

nor church fathers, during the seventh and succeeding centuries

more and more books must have reached the British Isles in the

satchels of peregrini. References from the following writers are 

found in Celtic commentaries subsequent to the second half of the

eighth century, without, however, any acknowledgement of the

source being made, either to the author or to his work:

Ambrose - Commentary on St Luke and Hexaemeron.

Aquila - Commentary on the Psalms.

Augustine - City of God and De Genesi ad Litteram.

Cassian - Institutiones.

Gregory - Magna Moralia on John and Homilies on Ezekiel and the

Gospels.

Hilary - "Ambrosiaster", on St Paul's Epistles.

Isidore - Etymologiae and Sententiae.

Jerome - Commentaries. letters, De Viris Illustribus, and

translation of Origen.

Origen - in translation by Jerome and Rufinius.

Pelagius - Commentary on St Paul's Epistles. 

Primasius - Commentary on St Paul's Epistles (?)

Prisian - Commentaries.

Symmachus - Commentary on the Psalms.

Theodore of Mopsuestia - Commentary on the Psalms 

There are also allusions to the Irish commentators Mailoairmrid

and Coirbre by the glossators.

The later Celtic commentator borrowed indiscriminately. In that

gold-mine of his opinion, the Wurtzberg glosses in Old-Irish on

the Pauline Epistles, this is clearly manifest. Augustine was

quoted eleven times; Isidore five; Origen twenty-one; Hilary or

"Ambrosiaster" twenty-nine; Jerome one hundred and sixteen; while

there are one thousand three hundred and sixteen citations taken

directly from the arch-heretic Pelagius himself. Attacked by

Jerome, anathematized by the Bishop of Rome, preached against by

Germanus and Lupus, hounded from pillar to post, Pelagius was

strongly entrenched in the hearts of his own Celtic friends, who

ignored the prohibitions of councils and the proscriptions of the

fathers. His writings were used for centuries in Ireland, on

occasion, however, modified when not acceptable to the eclectic

theologians. Here is another instance of the independence of

Irish expositors, and a

……

(For discussion of the position of the Pelagian writings in the

Celtic Church see H. Zimmer, Pelagius in Inland, where all the

references are printed in full [pp. 40-112]. H. Williams argues

rightly that Pelagius was not held to be a heretic [if the Irish

even knew of his condemnation as such] in the Celtic Church; see

"A review of Heinrich Zimmer's Pelagius in Irland and The Celtic

Church in Britain and Ireland", ZCP iv. 3 (1903); cf. F. W.

Wasserschleben, Die irische Kanonensammiung, where the Irish

canons xviii, xix, quote Pelagius. This is further evidence that

Pelagius was regarded as valid authority by Irish Christians.

Pope-elect John (c. 640) appealed to the North Irish to give up

their allegiance to Pelagius. Some of them were evidently quoting

Pelagius freely)

……

defiance of the opinions of the broad stream of Western

Christianity. 

The remarkable thing, however, about all these citations from the

fathers is that not one is used for defining doctrine, or as

authority for practice. They were employed because they aptly

expressed the thought which the commentator desired. As will be

noted, statements by various fathers are placed side by side.

Occasionally as many as five different views were presented, and

the reader or homilist is left to choose the one which he thinks

the best.

The decrees of ecclesiastical councils were also treated with 

caution or indifference. When the canons of the Frankish synods

were quoted against Columbanus, he met argument with argument,

and cited in response the canon of the Council of Constantinople

which recognized the liberty of "the churches of God planted in

pagan nations, [to] live by their own laws, as they have been

instructed by their fathers" More than a century later Boniface

(+ 754) complained to Pope Zachary against Irish missionaries,

certifying that their leader Clement ignored the canons of the

Church, rejected the writings of the fathers, and despised the

authority of the synods. Ussher pointed out that Alcuin (+ 804)

had noted that some Irish theologians of his day put little

weight on authority and custom "unless some reason was added to

authority". This helps to tell us why the represenatives of the

Roman mission of Augustine were surprised that the Britons

differed from them in so many respects. 

It would be well at this juncture to consider the methods used by

the Celts in biblical interpretation. It took many centuries of

trial and error before Western Christianity devised techniques,

and so it is not surprising to find among the Celts several

different ways of explaining the Bible. Cassian, whose influence

has been noted, declared that the narrative of the Scripture,

usually easily understandable in its historical sense, ranked

lowest. To the questing student the allegorical meaning lay

beneath the surface, and finally, deeper still, the anagogical

significance was the richest. But among Celtic commentators there

is discernible no systematized form of exegesis.

Most often the simple historical sense alone was taken. On the

psalmist's reference to "enemies" the comment was, "These are the

Moabites, Ammonites and Idumeans". The commentator read Psalm 108

and applied it to the days of Hezekiah, noting that the "fool"

referred to Sennacherib. St Paul's prediction of the "falling

away"  was taken to refer to the departure of the Empire from the

Romans. The Celtic expositor was evidently unaware that this had

already taken place when he penned his comment in the seventh or

eighth century. "Thorn in the flesh" was explained as "headaches"

In these examples, which are part of hundreds which might be

cited, what was considered to be the simple historical purport of

the text was drawn from the biblical terms.

The historical meaning was occasionally used in combination with

the allegorical. On the Apostle's allusion to the different calls

played on a trumpet, the homilist noted that this referred to

speaking, for "unless the foreign language is distinguished and

translated, no one who hears it understands". Does this comment

indicate that in parts of Ireland worship, or perhaps preaching,

was carried on in the vernacular? One more instance of the

allegorical method will suffice. On St Paul's reference to

"leaven" the glossator remarked: "As it was forbidden to put

leaven in bread at the feast of the lamb, so it is not right that

there should be any of the leaven of sin in the feast of the

Lamb, i.e. Christ" The literal meaning or story (stoir) is

contrasted with the allegorical (sens), or sometimes with the

secret or mystical significance (ruin or run).

Very rarely a threefold system of interpretation was used,

namely, the literal meaning (stoir), the mystical or allegorical

meaning (sians or sens), and the moral or tropological

significance (morolus). Sometimes a fourfold system was employed,

but this was rare. The commentator applied the narrative twice.

There was a first application to the time of the biblical writer,

and a second was made to later Hebrew history. Here is the

Old-Irish expositor's philosophy of hermeneutics:

     There are four things that are necessary in the Psalms, to

     wit, the first story (stoir), and the second story, the

     sense (siens) and the morality (morolus). The first story

     refers to David and to Solomon and to the above-mentioned

     persons, to Saul, to Absalom, to the persecutors besides.

     The second story to Hezekiah, to the Maccabees. The meaning

     (siens) to Christ, to the earthly and the heavenly church.

     The morality (morolus) to every saint.

While there existed a Western Christian fourfold method of

interpretation, this Celtic system was different, perhaps evolved

from that of Theodore of Mopsuestia.  Columba was believed by his

biographer to have had a sytem somewhat akin to this:

     He divided a division with figures, between the books of the

     law, i.e. he divided a division with allegorizing between

     the books of reading or of Lex. i.e. of the Law of each, the

     Old Law and the New Testament, i.e. he used to distinguish

     history (stair) and sense (sians), morality (morail) and

     mystical interpretation (anogaig).

That this Celtic technique was regarded as a good one is

suggested by the poem attributed to Airbhertach (+ 1016):

Four things in the Psalms (pure counsel), the first story, the

second story (stair), There are found in them (it is not falsehood!) 

noble sense (sians) and morality (moralus),

It is with these that the first story is with Solomon.

With the persecutors of the hosts, with Saul, with Absalom. The

second story which is here declared refers to Hezekiah, to the

People,

To the Kings (excellent the fame!), to Moses, to the Maccabees.

The meaning (siansa) of the Psalms, with their divisions, to Holy

Christ, to the Church;

The morality after that severally to every just one, blessed

vigil-keeping.

The Celtic expositior was seeking a method of construing the

meaning of the Scriptures in a practical way. "The second story"

points to the application of the original biblical message to a

later generation, that is, the message of the Pentateuch, the

Books of Joshua and judges, and even the writings of 1 and 2

Samuel, point to later periods and persons, such as Hezekiah and

the people of Israel. The third stage of significance, called the

meaning (siansa) drew attention to Christ and his Church. The

fourth and final application was "to every just one". This Celtic

fourfold division, quite different from the quadriform system

which developed in the Western Church, was concerned with

pragmatic issues. How the message of the Scriptures could be

applied to the needs of the Christian was the concern of the

Celtic homilete.

AUTHORITY OF SCRIPTURE

A careful study of the glosses in the Wurtzberg commentary

demonstrates that biblical exegesis shows a great reverence for

the antiquity and authority of the Scriptures. No desire is

anywhere detectable in the Celtic expositions to formulate a

system of dogmatic theology. There is little or no curiosity or

speculation regarding obscure passages. But there is a

tranquillity, a complete absence of controversy pervading the

study of the oracles of God. The interpreter was preoccupied with

the spiritual and the practical, and sought to make this plain.

ORIGINAL LANGUAGES

There is little evidence that Celtic theologians, as a whole, had

any great knowledge of the original languages of the Bible, but

there are indications that a few readings from the Hebrew and

Septuagint were known. The eighth-century old-Irish glossator

occasionally observed - "so far the text of the Hebrew version",

and, "this is the translation of Jerome, and he is commenting on

... the version of the Septuagint". But these readings probably

Teached Celtic scholars through the writings of commentators

after the seventh century, since, as has already been noticed, it

does not appear probable that these works would have preceded the

arrival of the Vulgate.

(Again the true early fact of the first century is that Greek was

known and spoken in Britain. Greek was the common language of the

Roman empire. The LXX was in print, the NT writings in Greek

would have made their way into Britain in the first century AD

when Christianity was brought to England and the Celtic people.

By the 5th, 6th, 7th century all this may indeed have become lost,

as the influence of the Roman church took over the land of Britain

- Keith Hunt)

 

Greek and Hebrew words are sprinkled over the commentaries. The

Celt was "interested in etymology." Often, apparently with

several works before him, he selected what appealed to him from

each: "This is the etymology which Isidore says ..." He then

added, "Sergius, however, gives another sense ..." And still

farther, "Cassiodorus, however, gives another sense, to wit ..."

And then, "Ambrose, however, says ..." The glossator gave his

readers this warning on semantics: "It does not behove us to add

to the Holy

(KM, Hibernica Minora, 31 : "Question.  How is their meaning

arrived at? Not difficult. There is found a Greek neuter noun,

[Greek] functio is its interpretation. It receives the Greek

Preposition 'dia,' with a sense of separating, so that it makes

[Greek], and disiunctio is its interpretation, to wit, separation

of the sense and the purport and the author and the form that are

in the psalms. 'Diapsalma' is put to separate anything that has

been joined together by misreading, The same noun also receives

the Greek preposition [Greek], which, interpreted, is 'cou,' so

that it makes [Greek] which, interpreted, is 'con', so that it

makes [Greek] which, interpreted, is 'coniunctio'. 'Sympsalma' is

put, to join together anything that has been separated by

misreading")

Scriptures from without, for whenever the author lets out a word

on his mouth, there is a word in his mind that answers to it."

Sometimes the commentator was working either with a poor copy or

with a limited knowledge of Greek, as illustrated by his note on

St Paul's "labouring, i.e. making ropes". He mistook (Greek),

tents, for (Greek), ropes. That he was more intent on applying

the passage under discussion to the spiritual needs of his

hearers is demonstrated by the gloss on the Apostle's statement

in 1 Cor. 15.53: "Whether in the active or the passive it should

be done. Whether the verb induo ends in 'b' for the active, or in

'r', induor, for the passive, there is passivity on the part of

the one who submits to God." His interest in grammar is shown by

the comments on 'wicked': "i.e. to the adjective, i.e. a

substantive, i.e. a substantive is not added to them, because the

Psalms were sung in metre. The sense demands it, though the metre

does not allow the substantive to be added to the adjective.

There is a slight indication that the expositor on Ps. 30.9 had

some knowledge of the Hebrew (kdphdr) in his explanation: "he

covered up and forgave their sin, and reckoned it not as a

reproach unto him". From these illustrations, and very many more

might be added, the conclusion seems inescapable that the

Old-Irish commentators had only a limited knowledge of Greek and

Hebrew words, and that they probably gained this from the

writings of others.

(In the first centuries AD this was probably not so. Much was

lost by the time the Roman church entered Britain and certainly

thereafter - Keith Hunt)

PREACHING

Preaching, in harmony with the divine command, was an important

means by which the Celtic missionaries, Patrick and Columba,

Columbanus and Aidan, spread the gospel. There are scores of

allusions to preaching in the Old-Irish glosses, and even in

biblical passages in which there are not any apparent suggestions

of preaching, the Celtic homilete saw some. Illustrations might

be multiplied. It seems reasonable to suppose that these notes

represent the views of preachers, as they prepared to address

their congregations or to teach their theological students or

catechumens.

* "Preach" - Whether any one likes it or dislikes it, preach to

him. 2 Tim. 4.2, TP 1, 696.

"Speak we" - It is Christ we preach, 2 Cor. 2.17, TP 1, 597.

"Sentence or answer" - We had the death of Christ for a subject

of preaching. 2 Cor. 1.9, TP 1, 592.

"Grace" - The grace of teaching or preaching; for it was to

preach to all that I received this grace. Rom. 15.15, TP 1, 539.

"Keep under" - Through preaching, and not accepting pay. 1 Cor.

9.27, TP 1, 556.

That the cleric strove to make his discourse as pleasant as

possible is indicated by his ideal of preaching as "a stream of

eloquence of speaking with the grace of sweetness upon it".

The thousands of Irish glosses written between the lines of

biblical manuscripts or commentaries on books of the Bible were a

sort of midrash on the text. In his introduction to Psalm 9 the

glossator has left a record of his methodology: "It is customary,

then, in this book to say the words of the psalms, and then words

are brought in from this commentary to complete the psalms." The

fact that these twelve thousand comments are written in OldIrish

would point to preaching in the vernacular. The expositor or

preacher used these notes as reminders of the thoughts he wished

to convey when he was actually before his listeners. The comments

are, for the most part, very short, their ideas greatly

condensed. The teacher was free, then, to discourse as he

pleased. Sometimes as many as five different interpretations are

found on a single passage. The remarkable point about this is the

complete absence of anything fixed or dogmatic. There is nothing

partisan. A. W. Haddan long ago noted that "The difference

between [Ireland] and other parts of the Church, lay chiefly in

her possessing a wider and more self-grown learning, and in the

consequent boldness and independence of her speculations".

An unknown Irish teacher has left a brief treatise on what he

considered were the steps in sermon construction.t It is embedded

in a fragment of an Old-Irish work on the book of Psalms. The

homilete desired his students to concentrate on clarity above

all, and to couch his thought in short words. Topics should be

chosen

……

*On Ps. 68.:g the glosses are: "He is here commenting on the text

of Symmachus. Mailgaimrid cecinit: ... of the birth whereby he

was born of the Father before every element, though it is not

easy to get that out of the commentary; for as the sun is prior

to the day, and it is the day that makes clear everything, so the

birth of the Son from the Father is prior to every element; i.e.

he considers Oriens here as a name of God. He was here a

commentary on ad orientem. Mailgaimrid : ab initio, i.e. of the

generation of the Son by the Father." TP t, 285.

+ "Question. What is argumentum? Not difficult. Acute mentis

inventum, 'a sharp invention of the mind', or acutum inventum, or

'a sharp invention'. There is a word arguo, that is ostendo.

Argumentum, then, ostendio 'showing'. 

Question. For what use were arguments invented? Not difficult.

To set forth through stout words the sense which follows, ut

dixit Isidorus: Argumenta sunt quae causal rerum ostendunt. Ex

brevitate sermonum longum sensum habent.

……

to rivet attention and divisions of the theme should enable the

hearers to pursue the subject, without distracting digressions.

Diligent and acute thought was to be employed to gain new

insights. This is certainly an excellent piece of homiletic

instruction! It is endorsed by the glossator, of about the same

period, in his explication of the Pauline use of the word

"tongues": "Translating from one language into another, like

Jerome and the seventy interpreters: or, to draw forth hidden

meanings from single words, and then to preach from them

afterwards, as is the custom of preachers." 

Most of the surviving sermons, however, simply consist of an

elucidation of the text of Scripture. A passage might be read

from the Gospels, or the Epistles, or the Psalms. The homilete

would then make a few germane remarks. His purpose was twofold:

firstly, he wished to convey the intent of the author of the

biblical passage; secondly, he desired to make its application

helpful in the daily lives of his hearers. An example is found in

the second of the three lives of Patrick. The speaker opened his

homily by reading, in Latin, the directive of our Lord to the

Apostles, "Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing ..."

On this text he expatiated as follows:

     Meet is the order, teaching before baptism. For it cannot be

     that the body should receive the sacrament of baptism before

     the soul receives the verity of faith.

     "All nations", that is, without acceptance of persons.

     "Baptizing them", that is, men of the Gentiles. "In the name

     of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost." "In the

     name", he saith, not "in the names". Here is set forth the

     Unity and Trinity of Persons. For the singularity of "name"

     expresses Unity. But the diversity of appellations indicates

     the Trinity. "Teaching them to observe all that I have

     commanded you." An especial order: He directed the apostles

     first, to teach all nations, and then to baptize them with

     the sacrament of faith, and in favour of faith and baptism,

     to enjoin all things that were to be heeded. And lest we

     should think that the things

……

"Question. For what use were divisions distinguish the sense

which follows."

"Question. What then is the difference between the argument and

the title? Not difficult. The arguments were invented to set

forth the sense that follows, ut diximus: Titulus to illustrate

the cause and occasion at which the psalm was sung." KM, op.

cit., 29.

……

     ordered were few and trifling, be added: "All that I have

     commanded to you", so that they who have believed and been

     baptized in the Trinity may do all that bath been enjoined.

     "And lo, I am with you alway even unto the end of the

     world", as if he would say, "This is your reward", and as if

     he had said, "Fear not to go into the world and to be

     harassed with tribulations, for my help will be present to

     you therein, even to the end of life, in doing signs and

     miracles." The apostles fulfilled [this], and so forth.

This is not profound exposition, but it is preaching in slow

motion. The thought, as some precious stone, is held up before

the listeners, and slowly turned around in the hands of the

speaker as he describes its various facets. There is little

movement, no rush of ideas. There is, however, a devotional study

of the implications of Scripture to aid practical piety.

J. Strachan long ago published one of the very few genuine

OldIrish homilies which have survived. It was evidently addressed

to a group of Christians as an encouragement to more joyous

adoration of God and a deeper devotion to the virtues of

Christian living. It begins with a short, direct introduction in

the form of a statement of purpose. This would be natural before

a congregation assembled for their regular service of worship.

Here is what an outline of this sermon might have looked like as

it lay on the lectern before the Celtic preacher:

Introduction: The Christian must be thankful to God.

1.   It is REASONABLE to be thankful for all God's blessings. 

i. Creation praises its Creator.

ii. Sinners have cause to praise their Saviour. 

iii. Christians naturally praise God.

11.  It is a DUTY to be thankful for all God's blessings.

i. God abides with the righteous, and expels the devil, who

dwells in the wicked world.

ii. The emancipated Christian will praise God from his heart. 

111 Upon WHAT may he expect God's Blessing?

i. Upon all he possesses - animate and inanimate, for without God

life is hell, with him, heaven.

(a) What is hell like? 

(b) What is heaven like?

ii. What will be the RESULT of abiding in 

(a) the atmosphere of hell?

(b) the atmosphere of heaven?

Conclusion: Let all enter into a relationship with God in which

blessings - now and ever-will result.

Imagination and extempore speaking filled in the details.

The way in which the Irish preacher went about developing his

theme was simple and direct. Following his opening statement,

which was an unadorned declaration: "We give thanks to Almighty

God, Lord of heaven and of earth, for his mercy and for his

forgiveness, for his charity, and for his benefits which he has

bestowed upon us in heaven and on earth", the preacher read Ps.

145.10 in a Latin version which differed from that of Jerome.

This he immediately translated into Old-Irish for the benefit of

those of his hearers who did not understand Latin. He took up the

first idea, "All Thy works ..." and went on to demonstrate how

all creation praises the Creator. He then cited Ps. 103.22, and

translated it, developing the thought that even sinners are not

without divine blessings, and quoting what appears to be a

paraphrase of Acts 17.25, which he translated into Old-Irish.

Since God is good and distributes his benefits to righteous and

wicked alike, he is worthy of praise. There follows a list of the

attributes of God. He is eternal, omnipotent, the creator and

sustainer, the nourisher and gladdener, the illuminator, ruler,

teacher, giver of the law, and judge of the world.

His second main point demonstrated that it was a duty for the

Christian to praise God. He quoted from St Peter and then

paraphrased the apostle's words, "the man who thanks God for his

grace and benefits is a fee simple estate to the King of all".

God abides in him while the devil dwells in the ungrateful. The

speaker then underlined the latter thought by a further citation

from St Peter, and remarked that the devil possesses the

ungrateful. It is for this reason that we should "give thanks to

God for his innumerable benefits". This Latin passage is

translated, or rather paraphrased.

His third point is a discussion of the objects upon which God

bestows his benefits. He listed the blessings of nature, the sun,

rain, and ripening grains. He then moved without a pause into:

"For he who receives Christ's folk, it is Christ whom he receives

therein; as He himself says, Qui vos recipit the recipit, qui vos

spernit the spernit", which he translated into Old-Irish. In

three ways he repeated this thought without any amplification or

exegesis, which is almost completely absent from his discourse.

He then dilated on the "likeness of the kingdom of heaven and of

hell in this world". Hell he illustrated by winter and snow,

tempest, cold, age, decay, disease, and death. Heaven he pictured

by fair weather, summer, blossom, leaf, beauty, feasts, feats,

prosperity. But there was an even severer form of hell to which

sinners will be condemned on the day of doom when Christ bids

them "Depart ..." This, too, was said in Latin and Irish. The

preacher was moved by his theme into giving a terrifying

description of hell:

     Its site is low, its surrounding is strong, its maw is dark,

     its dwelling is sorrowful, its stench is great, its monsters

     are everlasting, its surface is [rough], its soil is

     unfruitful, it is a cliff to restrain, it is a prison to

     keep, it is a flame to burn, it is a net to hold fast, it is

     a scourge to lash, it is an edge to wound, it is night to

     blind, it is smoke to stifle, it is a cross to torture, it

     is a sword to punish.

There is no attempt to present a biblical view of Hades. He

allowed his imagination to carry him away. He next presented a

list of things the Christian might do to avoid hell: "Labour and

study, fasting and prayer, righteousness and mercy, faith and

charity," were his prescriptions. To those who are faithful in

all these things Christ will one day say, "Come ye blessed ..."

This statement he gave first in Latin and then in translation.

The speaker then came to his final paragraph, which was an

appeal: "One should, then, strive after the kingdom of heaven."

This was unlike the present world, which he then went on to

describe in the most lurid language:

     It blinds like mist, it slays like sleep, it wounds like a

     point, it destroys like an edge, it burns like fire, it

     drowns like a sea, it swallows like a pit, it devours like a

     monster. Not such, however, is the kingdom which the saints

     and the righteous strive after. It is a fair blossom for its

     great purity, it is a course of an ocean for its great

     beauty, it is a heaven full of candles[?] for its exceeding

     brightness, it is a flame for its beauty, it is a harp for

     its melodiousness, it is a banquet for its abundance of

     wine.

He finally reached his peroration which consisted of an

ascription of praise to God for his goodness and mercy to all

mankind.

     Blessed is he who shall reach the Kingdom where is God

     Himself, a King, great, fair, powerful, strong, holy, pure,

     righteous, keen, ... merciful, charitable, beneficent, old,

     young, wise, noble, glorious, without beginning, without

     end, without age, without decay. May we arrive at the

     Kingdom of that King, may we merit it, may we inhabit it in

     saecula saeculorum. Amen.

CELTIC ANALYSIS

No analysis of Celtic preaching has been attempted before. If

this is typical it reveals several interesting qualities. The

portions taken from the Scriptures were either read or cited from

memory from the Old Latin version, which, as is usual, contained

texts differing from the Vulgate. The quotations in this short

homily, nine in number, form a considerable part of the

discourse, since they were cited, and then translated, and

finally paraphrased. The preacher was ready to indulge in vivid

descriptions, allowing his imagination to suggest the qualities

of heaven and hell usually supplied in the Bible, and also the

attributes and activities of God; the items upon which the

blessings of God rested and the snares of the kingdom of this

world and the wonders of the kingdom of heaven. His introduction

was brief to the point of abruptness. His conclusion consisted of

both ascription to God and appeal to his fellows. The atmosphere

of the homily is quiet, simple, meditative, sincere, and

practical. It is easy to follow. It displays no interest in

theology as such, and is purely devotional.

Besides the homily, a question-and-answer method was common with

Celtic teachers, as even a cursory perusal of the sources will

reveal. The Irish catechist, as well as the hagiographer and

compiler of annals, would often, and abruptly, ask a question, to

which the response, psychologically suggestive, was generally

"the answer is not difficult". Simple biblical tests were also

employed. An eighth-century text, found in the monastery of St

Gall, is an 

……

*Col. 2.11, TP t, 672: "Circumcision - -Question: What is the

circumcision of Christ? The answer is not difficult: It means his

death and burial; it is these that effect a circumcision from

vices."

ALI IV, 365: "Question: What is the penalty of wounding a virgin

bishop? Answer: Three victims to be hanged from every hand that

wounded him; half the debt of wounding is paid for insulting

him."

……

"example of medieval Bible study undertaken independently of the

Fathers:"

     Who died but was never born? (Adam) 

     Who gave but did not receive? (Eve, milk) 

     Who was born but did not die? (Elias and Enoch)

     Who was born twice and died once? (Jonas the prophet, who

     for three days and three nights prayed in the belly of the

     whale. He neither saw the heavens nor touched the earth)

     How many languages are there? (Seventy-two) 

     Who spoke with a dog? (St Peter)

     Who spoke with an ass? (Balaam the prophet)

     Who was the first woman to commit adultery? (Eve with the

     serpent)

     How were the Apostles baptized? (The Saviour washed their

     feet)

This series of questions might reflect "the academic method of

the day, though it may be nothing more than a parody on the

disputatio of the early medieval Bible schools". It obviously

reflects a time when precise knowledge of the facts of the Bible

was becoming blurred!

(Oh you bet the facts of the Bible were by this time becoming

blurred - truth was being overrun by error and false teachings

and ideas from the church of Rome - Keith Hunt)

TEN COMMANDMENTS

But while the Celtic theologian was keenly interested in the

whole of the Scriptures, his preoccupation with the Ten

Commandments was even deeper. The earliest Christian service

included a recitation of the Decalogue. It might well be that

Pliny's statement that Christians bound themselves by an oath not

to kill or steal reflected his understanding of the meaning of

the repetition of the Ten Commandments in the Christian liturgy.

If this be granted, then "this will explain both the sudden

decision of the Jewish authorities to omit the Decalogue from

their daily service and the great prominence accorded to it in

early Christian literature"  The Christianity practised by

Patrick's parents and introduced by him into Ireland was

characterized by a profound respect for the Ten Commandments.

Antinomianism and anti-Semitism had not succeeded in banishing

the Decalogue from Britain. In his comment on the word "teachers"

the Old-Irish glossator observed: "That they might be engaged in

framing laws with kings". This was an allusion to the tradition

that the Brehon code of Ireland was revised under the direction

of Patrick. The introduction of the Senchus Mor contains a

prophecy of an early Irish sage which underlines the point of

view of Celtic Christians that the Decalogue was part of what

they regarded as their code of conduct:

     They had foretold that the bright word of blessing would

     come, i.e. the law of the letter; for it was the Holy Spirit

     that spoke and prophesied through the mouths of the just men

     who were formerly in the island of Erin, as he had

     prophesied through the mouths of the chief prophets and

     noble fathers in the patriarchal law; for the law of nature

     had prevailed where the written law did not reach.

This introduction also contained the delightful statement that

Patrick was helped by Dubhthach Mac ua Lugair, who put "a thread

of poetry around" the laws. It would be a joy to the student of

all legal enactments were a Patrick to insist that in every

legislative assembly a poet do the same! The Brehon laws, at

least in their Christian aspects, were based on the Decalogue and

other parts of the Mosaic legislation, for the tradition is

preserved that:

     What did not clash with the Word of God in the written law

     and in the New Testament, and with the consciences of the

     believers, was confirmed in the laws of the Brehons by

     Patrick and by the ecclesiastics and the chieftains of Erin;

     for the law of nature had been quite right, except the

     faith, and its obligations and the harmony of the church and

     the people. And this is the Senchus Mor.

Another clue to the pervasive influence of the Bible on the

OldIrish legislation is the echo of St Paul's declaration that

"the scripture hath concluded all under sin", and "now we know

that what things so-ever the law saith, it saith to them who are

under the law: that every mouth may be stopped, and all the world

may become guilty before God," which lie behind this explanation

in the Senchus Mor:

     For all the world was at an equality, i.e. for all the world

     was at an equality of ignorance or injustice until the great

     "cas" of the seniors came to be established, i.e. "hand for

     a hand, foot for a foot"; or, each person's right was

     according to his might.

This synthesis, of the old Brehon Laws and the regulations  of

the Old Testament, throws light on the practices of the ancient

Irish Christians, and hence of the Celtic Church. It probably

goes back for its inspiration to the old law book, Liber ex Lege

Moisi. Whereever Patrick established a church he was believed to

have left a copy of "the books of the Law and the Books of the

Gospel". The Liber ex Lege Moisi is the only work surviving from

Celtic sources which answers to the description, "books of the

Law". Each of the four extant manuscripts of this work has an

Irish provenance. The earliest has been dated about 800, and had

apparently been copied from an earlier manuscript. It commences

with the Decalogue and contains selections from the Books of

Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, which are filled

with citations from the Old Latin. Its interest lies not only in

the texts it contains, but also in the parts of the Mosaic

legislation it omits. In the Corpus Christi College Ms. 279 it

forms part of the Canones Hibernenses, which end with the

following sentences:

     The people of Israel ought to have been ruled by the Ten

     Commandments of the law, since for the sake of these God

     smote the Egyptians with the ten plagues; therefore are

     there ten commandments; while there are precepts in the law

     which God did not command, but (for example) Jethro the

     kinsman of Moses told Moses to choose seventy leading men

     who would judge the people with Moses; and this is the

     judgment, that if we find judgments of the heathen good,

     which good Nature teaches them, and it is not displeasing to

     God, let us keep them.

Not only were Patrick and the framers of the Senchus Mor

interested in the Decalogue, Brigit was also "a keeper of God's

commandments", and Columba was likewise credited with teaching

"the books of the Law completely", for "Christ's law they used to

chant, with mysteries they used to search it out, with their host

no heedlessness was found". As Fournier long ago pointed out,

this little book apparently played an important part in the

framing of the laws of Ina, and hence of those of Alfred the

Great and later legislators.

The significance of the Liber ex Lege Moisi has been overlooked

in studies of Celtic beliefs and practices. Not only were laws

modified by it, but also theological concepts and many practices

show direct dependence upon its regulations. The following pages

will demonstrate this relationship. 

The Celtic Church cherished a deep love of the Bible, and from

the Epistles of St Paul developed their theology. The Psalms were

used in worship, and were the inspiration of poets and preachers.

Without the influence of the views of church fathers Celtic

theologians set about discovering what the Scriptures meant.

Their tenets and practices, based on this understanding, show the

eclecticism and pragmatism of exegete and layman. The legislation

of Moses pervaded social, economic, and legal relationships to an

extent seldom seen in the history of other branches of the

Church. 

Unlike the theologians of Roman Christianity who appealed more

and more to the teachings of Church and councils, Celtic teachers

stressed the Bible. The role of the Scriptures in Celtic

Christianity was indeed a vital one, so much so that no thorough

study of the beliefs and practices of the Christians of Celtic

lands is possible without bearing this fact in mind.

..........

To be continued

Note:

We have seen how important the Scriptures were to the Celtic

church people. It was even more so in the first centuries AD

before the Roman church arrived in Britain. We still see the

strength of Scripture for the Celtic people even during the 5th,

6th, 7th, century AD when the Roman church had arrived. But as

the prophecy of the book of Revelation gave "all nations have

become drunk on the wine of her fornication [spiritual]" and "she

is drunken with the blood of the saints" - so indeed the history

of the church of Rome and the world has become exactly what

Revelation said she would become. The church of Rome has shed the

blood of the saints, and she has made all nations spiritually

fornicate with her false teachings and false customs and wrong

traditions, i.e. the first of January is observed by nearly every

nation on earth; the Christ-mass season is in one way or another

being observed by more and more nations of the earth.

As Jesus said "Thy [God's] word is truth" (John 17:17) and as He

also said, finding that truth will make you free.

You need to keep your nose and eyes in the Bible. You can know

what the canon of the Old and New Testament books are. It is all

in detail explained to you in studies on my website.

By the study of the Scriptures you can know the truth of God from

all the errors of mankind. Then you can know the way to salvation

and the Kingdom of God.

Keith Hunt