CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN #7

 The Celtic Church in Britain #7

Divine Services

by Leslie Hardinge (1972)

  

     From the beginning of Christianity its ministry has conducted 

religious services to meet the needs of its members. In the old 

Hebrew economy rituals were connected with birth and death, 

mourning and rejoicing, and at set seasons of the year.

    The New Testament Church carried over some of these ceremonies

modified to fit in with the changed conditions.

     At his initiation into the Church the catechumen died to his

past and was born to a new life, through baptism. Connected with

baptism was the act of laying on of hands. When infant baptism

eventually became the regular practice of the Church this rite of

confirmation took on a different connotation. In some areas

Christian worship also included a little baptism or foot-washing.

Initially occasionally, then weekly, finally daily, "the Lord's

supper" was celebrated, for the living and for the dying.

BAPTISM BY IMMERSION

     In the New Testament baptism was carried out by immersion,

and was so practised by Christians for centuries. As performed by

the Celtic Church baptism was also by immersion. The glossator

saw in it a symbolic fulfilment of Christ's burial. "When we

[pass under] baptism," he said, "it is the likeness of his burial

and death to us."

     There would seem to be little doubt from the sources that

triple immersion was the mode practised in the section of Celtic

Christianity represented by the Old-Irish glossator. On St Paul's

teaching that there was "one baptism" he carefully noted, "though

the immersion is triple". By the Apostle's observation to the

Colossians that Christians should be "buried with him", the Irish

theologian understood that "three waves pass over us in baptism,

because he was three days in the sepulchre".  This was the reason

generally assigned by the Greek writers for triple immersion,

while Augustine and the fathers of the West felt that this threefold 

act symbolized the Trinity.

     The question whether there should be one or three immersions

was a subject of controversy in the Western Church even as late

as the seventh century, particularly in Spain. Single immersion

apparently was practised in Brittany even after the seventh

century. A. W. Haddan conjectured that single immersion was a

Scottish or British practice. It would appear from the glosses,

however, that single immersion was not in use by the Celtic

Church in Ireland.

(Yes it is an historic fact that even the Roman Catholic church

for centuries practiced baptism by immersion. This can be found

on any deep study into the subject of baptism. The triple

immersion is purely man made invention and tradition, that just

about nobody practices today, as it cannot be found in Scripture.

If the Celtic church in Britain [other than Ireland] practiced

single immersion, they were correct - Keith Hunt)

ADULT BAPTISM

     Since instruction was invariably given before baptism, it

would seem that adults alone were required to comply with this

rite during the early period of the Celtic Church. This would be

the only way possible in a missionary movement dealing with

pagans. The glossator explained that St Paul's use of the term

"prophesying" indicated "preaching; the stirring up of every one

to belief, that he may be ready for baptism". Another comment

pointing to adult baptism is found in this sentence: "As

catechumens are at first taught by a priest, and are baptized,

and as they are then anointed by a bishop, so then John had begun

to teach men and to baptize them at first, and they have been

anointed by Christ, i.e. the work which John had begun has been

perfected by Christ and has been completed."

     The earlier penitentials corroborated this practice of careful 

instruction. A canon of the Synod of Patrick discussed another 

method of "preparation for baptism" in these terms "If anyone 

of the brothers wishes to receive the grace of God [i.e. baptism] 

he shall not be baptized until he has done [penance for) a period 

of forty days." Even then instruction was to be continued for 

the baptized catechumen, since the glossator observed: 

"Teaching every one after baptism".

     Following careful indoctrination the proselyte's belief in

God was deemed necessary before his acceptance for membership.

This is suggested in Patrick's contact with Sescnech, who, after

hearing the saint preach, believe in God and was baptized.

     Cairthenn, simply "believed in the Lord. And Patrick baptized 

him in Saingil." Dichu, on the other hand, showed contrition. 

When he was about to kill Patrick, the priest prayed for him, "and 

grief of heart seized Dichu, and he believed, and Patrick baptized him

after that". Findchua was called "a perfect child" at the time of his 

baptism." That this "belief" was considered necessary by Patrick is 

underlined by the anecdote of Cathboth's seven sons who "went to 

him [Patrick]; he preached to them, and they believed and were 

baptized".

     

     Instruction, belief in God, repentance, grief of heart, and

penance, were prerequisites of baptism. On the Apostle's

declaration, "by grace are ye saved and that through faith", the

commentator noted an allusion to "the faith which they confessed

in baptism". This faith springs from the preaching of "baptism of

repentance for remission of sins", and further brings "men into

faith, the forgiveness of their sins to them through baptism".

     

     The instructor's role is that of "the bridesman, i.e. John.

He had prepared the nuptials, i.e. he had wooed the Church for

Christ." The catechumen was united in fellowship with the

believers through his baptism. The Old-Irish theologian summed 

up his understanding of the significance of this ceremony in the

comment: "Though Christ be in you through confession of faith 

in baptism, and the soul is alive thereby, yet the body is dead

through the old sins, and, though it has been cleansed through

baptism, it is unable to do good works until the Holy Spirit

awakes it." The ministry of the Spirit's awakening was signified

by the anointing with oil or chrism before actual baptism in

water. The candidate was also required to declare his acceptance

of the faith "through the creed which was recited at baptism".

     A legend is preserved of the encounter of Patrick with the

two princesses, Ethene the Fair and Feidelem the Rosy, daughters

of the high king Loegaire. A dialogue ensued which might be

arranged in the form of a catechism something like this. The

girls (G) questioned the saint (P) regarding the faith, and he

answered them:

G Whence hast thou come, and where is thy home?

P It were better for you to believe in the true God whom we

worship than to ask questions about our race.

G Who is God? Of whom is he God? 

P Our God is the God of all men.

G Where is God? Where is God's dwelling?

P He has his dwelling around heaven and earth and sea and all

that in them is. He inspired all, he quickens all, he dominates

all, he supports all. He lights the light of the sun. He

furnishes the light of the night. He has made springs in the dry

land. He has set stars to minister to the greater lights.

G Is he fair? Has he sons and daughters, thy God, and has he gold

and silver?

P He has a Son coeternal with himself, and like unto himself. 

G Is he immortal?

P The Son is not younger than the Father, nor the Father older

than the Son.

G Has the Son been fostered by many?

P The Father, the Son, and the Spirit are not divided.

G Is he in heaven or in earth? In the sea, in the rivers, in the

hill places, in the valleys?

P He is the God of heaven and earth, of sea and rivers, of sun

and moon and stars, of the lofty mountain and the lowly valley,

the God above heaven and in heaven and under heaven. 

G Tell us how we may know him, in what wise he will appear? 

P I wish to unite you with the heavenly King, as ye are daughters

of an earthly king.

G How is he discovered? Is he found in youth or in old age? 

P Believe!

G Tell us with all diligence how we may believe in the heavenly

King that we may see him face to face.

P Believe !

G How may we be prepared to meet him?

P Do you believe that by baptism you can cast away the sin of

your father and mother?

G We believe!

P Do you believe in life after death? 

G We believe

P Do you believe in the resurrection in the day of judgement? 

G We believe!

P Will you be baptized?

G We will do as thou sayest.

And Patrick baptized them and placed a white veil on their heads.

G How may we behold the face of Christ?

P You cannot see the face of Christ until you shall taste of

death. 

G How may we taste of death?

P You taste of death when you receive the sacrifice.

G Give us the sacrifice that we may see the Son, our bridegroom.

     And they received the Eucharist, and fell asleep in death.

This credal catechism was probably based on an early formula used

at services of baptism, and later incorporated into an

interesting story.

(The truth of God the Father and His Son Christ was well

understood by Patrick, and the basic rules for baptism. Note 

the comment below on "fell asleep in death" - Keith Hunt)

     The use of a white veil on the candidates after baptism is

also found in the narrative of the captives of Coroticus.

Following the immersion, Communion was administered to the

catechumens. This ritual is preserved in the baptismal service of

the Stowe Missal. In this rite the feet of the neophites were

washed after the baptism and before the Communion was received.

Through baptism the candidate was "born again in Christ", Sinners

were thus brought into one family, "massed into one body by

baptism", and thus "united in Christ". Only after their baptism

were they allowed to join in religious exercises among Celtic

Christians. Considering the Pauline teaching on "benefit or

grace" the glossator asked: "What is the first grace? The answer

is not difficult. The grace of forgiveness of sins through

baptism. The second grace is the forgiveness of sins through

repentance." Applying the allegorical significance of Christ's

baptism, the commentator observed that the sinner should be

"baptized, i.e. after the likeness of his death in the mortal

body, from which he parted in his passion. He does not return 

to that body, but is now in a spiritual resurrection body, without

expectation of death or decay. Let us therefore not return to the

mortal body of sins." Another belief, voiced by Finnian,

regarding the effect of this ceremony was that "the sins of all

are indeed remitted in baptism".

(This statement is often interpreted to mean that the young

women were martyred. The truth probably lies nearer to an

allegorical interpretation of the case. They died to sin and to

the world and were baptized by Patrick in the symbol of burial.

The original story is published in Analecta Bollandiana 11. 49,

and is translated by J. B. Bury, Life of St Patrick, 138-40.)

(The practice of the Eucharist after baptism was a move in the

wrong direction by the Celtic church by Patricks day. There is

nothing in the Bible to show or teach that having some

"eucharist" or "Lord's supper" - bread and fruit of the vine -

was required after baptism; indeed the NT is fully silent on that

matter, and in fact in the passages on baptism would prove that

tradition wrong and was an invention of men - Keith Hunt)

    

     

     F. E. Warren noted that the baptismal formula invoking the

names of the Persons of the Trinity has been left out of the

service found in the Stowe Missal. He pointed out the similarity

between this and the Gelasian Sacramentary. F. C. Conybeare

argued that it was this omission which rendered baptism by Celtic

clerics invalid in the eyes of the Western Church. Pope Gregory

11 replied to Boniface in 726 to the effect that:

     You have informed me that certain persons have been 

     baptized by adulterous and unworthy priests without their 

     having been interrogated about the symbol or creed. In such 

     cases you shall adhere to the ancient custom of the church, 

     which is that one who has been baptized in the name of the 

     Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost, must on no account 

     be rebaptized, for the gift of grace is not received in the

     name of the baptizer, but in the name of the Trinity.

(Jesus' instructions in Matthew are clear that the person is to

be baptized in the "name of the Father and the Son and the Holy

Spirit" - and in "Jesus' name" as other passages would teach,

would mean by the authority of Jesus, hence I baptize people by

saying..."By the authority of Jesus Christ I baptize you into

(Greek "en" can mean "into") the Father, the Son, and the Holy

Spirit " - Keith Hunt)

     The expression "adulterous priests" probably referred to

married Celtic clergy, who were regarded as being even more

unworthy because they had not been consecrated by bishops duly

authorized by the Roman Church. Notwithstanding these

considerations, Gregory recommended that should any Christian

have been baptized in the name of the Trinity his baptism was

valid. But, in spite of the arguments which Conybeare summoned,

it would seem to be still true that "the precise defect intended

[by Bede] is left to conjecture. Single immersion seems most

probable." But this can hardly be the case in view of the

references to triune immersion in the glosses. The criticism

might have arisen in connection with the pedilavium which

followed baptism in the Celtic ritual.

     Later Celtic Christian writers recorded other ceremonies

connected with baptism. The Stowe Missal noted that the breast

and shoulders of the candidate should be chrismated before

baptism. Here is an example from the life of Brigit: There

appeared "clerics in shining garments, who poured oil on the

girl's head; and they completed the order of baptism in the usual

manner. Those were three angels."

     It seems that baptism was believed, on occasion, to have

been performed in milk:

     But on the morrow, when the bondmaid went at sunrise with a

     vessel full of milk in her hand, and when she put one of her

     two footsteps over the threshold of the house, the other

     foot being inside, then she brought forth the daughter, even

     St Brigit. The maidservants washed St Brigit with the milk

     that was still in her mother's hand.

(We are now seeing how man made customs and traditions had crept

into the Celtic church over time. It is the way the true body of

Christ goes over a time space of centuries - solid truth becomes

corrupted and distorted and the ways of man, the ideas of man,

come into the true church and corruption and false teachings come

to pass. This is very evident by reading the 7 churches of

Revelation chapters 2 and 3 - Keith Hunt)

PAYMENT FOR BAPTISM

     While the earlier Celtic clerics accepted no fees from those

for whom they performed this service, in later centuries it

became quite normal for payments to be made to them. When

Findchua was baptized, his parents presented "a scruple, that is

seven pennies of gold, ... to [Ailbe of Imlech Ibair] for

baptizing the child". On the occasion of the baptism of Ciaran of

Clonmacnoise "a vessel of choice honey was given to deacon Justus

as his fee for baptizing Ciaran". And Bishop Eirc received "three

purple wethers ... out of the well as the fees for baptizing

Brenainn".

     Not only were fees presented for baptism, but, when Ciaran

was receiving his last Communion, he also gave "the scruple of

his communion" to Coimgen the priest. There seems to be some

connection between baptizing for fees and the ruling of a canon

of the penitential of Finnian: "Monks, however, are not to baptize, 

nor to receive alms; if, then, they do receive alms, why shall they 

not baptize?"

MUCH WATER

     Since baptism was carried out by immersion, it obviously

required a substantial quantity of water. In Celtic lands the

rite was often performed in a well. It was recorded that on one

of Patrick's trips "the site of his tent is in the green of the

fort, ... and to the north of the fort is his well wherein he

baptized Dunling's two sons". Findian "was baptized out of the

well named Bal, as was meet for his merits". Another anecdote

suggested a ceremony which Patrick was believed to have used in

this service:

     Thereafter Patrick went in his chariot, so that every one

     might see him, and that they might hear from him his voice,

     and the preaching of God's word by him. And then they

     believed in God and in Patrick. So Patrick repeats the order

     of baptism to them on the river, which was near them, and

     all the hosts are baptized therein.

     Here the baptismal service was conducted in a river, after

"the order of baptism", whatever that might have been, had been

recited. Apparently any place with sufficient water for immersion

was considered satisfactory.

ADULT BAPTISM TO INFANT BAPTISM

     Adult baptism appears to have been the practice of early

Celtic Christians. It is not known when infant baptism was

introduced among them. The penitential of Cummean proves 

that it was already in existence in the ruling that "one who instead 

of baptism blesses a little infant shall do penance for a year". 

It added the warning that "if the infant dies having had such a

blessing only, that homicide shall do penance according to the

judgement of a council". This is very interesting as it indicates

that blessing a little infant was an early Celtic Christian rite

which was no longer to be tolerated. It is well within the realms

of possibility that the original practice of the Celts had been

the simple blessing of infants in following the example of our

Lord. Patrick was believed to have baptized pregnant women and

their unborn infants, but this is very likely a comminatory story

to authorize an innovation of the author's time. But that infant

baptism finally became the regular practice among Celtic

Christians there is no doubt, as is witnessed by this story in

the life of Columba: "At that time when Saint Columba passed 

some days in the province of the Picts, a certain layman with his

whole household heard and believed the word of life, through an

interpreter, at the preaching of the holy man; and believing, was

baptized, the husband, with his wife and children, and his

servants." But the age of these children is not specified. The

penitential of Finnian ruled that "If a cleric does not receive a

child [to baptism], if it is a child of the same parish, he shall

do penance for a year on bread and water."

WHITE VEIL

     It was a custom for a white veil or white napkin to be

placed on the catechumen's head during the baptismal service.

Patrick put a veil upon the heads of the daughters of Leoghaire.

When the saint baptized the infant daughters of Maine, he draped

"a veil on their heads"." The Old-Irish glosses mention the veil

or mantle used during the service of baptism. The placing of this

veil followed the anointing of the candidate with oil or chrism.

When Patrick upbraided Coroticus for his inhuman massacre of

Irish Christians, he recalled that this oil was still seen shining 

upon the brows of the newly baptized persons on whom the

white veils had just been placed.

(Again a man-made tradition - Keith Hunt)

ANOINTING WITH OIL

     So, immediately following the baptism, it appears that the

head of the candidate was anointed. The Old-Irish commentator

remarked that after Christians have been baptized "they are then

anointed by a bishop". Other references to this custom have been

noted above. The drawing on page 101 above illustrates this

pouring oil from a spoon on his head while the candidate remains

standing  in the water.  

(Again a man-made tradition - Keith Hunt)

     From the Stowe Missal it is possible to reconstruct what was 

probably the sequence of the ritual of baptism among the Irish

Christians of the ninth century. Here is a summary: the service

opened with a prayer followed by a special petition that God

would exorcize the devil from each organ of the body and reign

within the candidate. This detailed enumeration points to the

fact that the expected catechumen would be an adult and most

likely a pagan. The consecration of the salt, the exorcism of the

water, and a prayer then follow.

     The candidate was then asked to renounce the devil and his

works, and the confession of the Creed began. The administrator

breathed upon him, a symbol of the infilling of the Holy Spirit,

and proceeded to anoint his breast and shoulders with oil and

chrism in the name of the Trinity, finally asking him a second

time whether he wished to renounce the devil and his works. After

a response in the affirmative, a prayer followed. Salt was then

placed in the mouth of the catechumen and a benediction spoken.

The neophite was once more anointed and sections of the Psalms

were recited and prayers said. After the font had been blessed by

means of a sign of the cross made of chrism placed on the water,

those present were sprinkled with the consecrated water and a

deacon interrogated them on their belief in God, after which the

candidate entered the font and was baptized. While he remained

standing in the water, oil was poured upon his head in the name

of the Trinity and a deacon placed a white veil upon him as the

priest prayed for the forgiveness of the penitent's sins and

invoked the blessings of God.

(Much man-made traditions had entered the basic simple 

practice of baptism by immersion - Keith Hunt)

     The candidate was clothed in a white robe by the deacon

while he was being asked whether he would accept the robe of

Christ's righteousness in preparation for his final judgement

before the tribunal of God. Oil was then put on the catechumen's

right hand with a prayer that his activities might be dedicated

unto life eternal. Next, there followed the washing of the

candidate's feet while appropriate passages were read from the

Psalms, such as "Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light unto

my path", and the reading of St John's account of Christ's

washing the apostles' feet. This part of the ceremony ended with

the directive that, as the Lord had washed the disciples' feet,

"You, clad in splendid white linen, must also wash".

     The concluding rite of the baptismal service, immediately

following the pedilavium, was the first Communion of the newly

baptized. Possibly because of this, an altar, at which the

Communion was to be celebrated, was often erected close to the

baptistery, as is suggested by the account of Patrick: "A church,

moreover, was founded on that well in which Patrick was baptized,

and there stands the well by the altar." Another comment is that

Patrick's "well is in front of the church". Was this the position

of the altar too? Both the bread and wine were received and the

service ended with prayers, thanksgiving, and petitions for

cleansing and dedication on behalf of the candidate.

(This shows by the time of Patrick much false ideas and

traditions had entered the Celtic church concerning the rite 

of baptism - Keith Hunt)

     But the Stowe Missal baptismal service is not pure Celtic,

it contains an admixture of Western Christian usages, introduced

after the process of Romanizing the Celts had begun. The sources

which are available are so meagre that the reconstruction of a

genuine early Celtic service is impossible. T. Thompson summed 

up his analysis:

     The Irish rite appears to have borne a strong resemblance to

     the Gallican, as for instance in the matter of the washing

     of the feet of the neophites. The effeta and the unction

     just before baptism, to judge from Bobbio and the fragments

     of the Stowe, had some peculiarities ... The Gallican books

     were superseded by Roman books. ... nor did the Irish books

     succeed any better in maintaining their position against the

     aggression of the dominant Roman influence.

CONFIRMATION

     It seems impossible to say when the service of confirmation

was introduced as a regular part of the Celtic ritual. There is a

hint that it was held to be theologically necessary in the

Old-Irish comment: "Though Christ be in you through confession 

of faith in baptism, and the soul is alive thereby, yet the body is

dead through the old sins, and, though it has been cleansed

through baptism, it is unable to do good works until the Holy

Spirit awakes it." The glossator evidently felt that the rite of

baptism alone was not completely efficacious for the convert

until the Holy Spirit had empowered him to live as a Christian,

This dynamic was believed to be imparted to him by the ceremony

of the laying on of hands.

LAYING ON OF HANDS

     The "Rule of Patrick", a late composition, also stipulated

that "the perfection of the Holy Spirit comes not, however

fervently a person is baptized, unless he 'goes under the hand'

of a bishop after baptism". Cuthbert likewise laid his hands on

those who "had been lately baptized ... when his hands and feet

had been washed in accordance with the custom ..." But this kind

of "confirmation" had nothing to do with endorsing infant

baptism. It was a service performed immediately after the baptism

of adults, at which time the impartation of the Holy Spirit was

believed to occur. The later Lives contain several references to

confirmation of a different sort. Patrick was described as

confirming, consecrating, or blessing. Cormac's Glossary defined

caplait or Maundy Thursday as "a name for the chief day of

Easter, i.e. 'head washing', i.e. since every one is tonsured

then, and his head is washed, in preparation for his confirmation

on the Easter Sunday".

     After the practice of infant baptism had been established,

confirmation took on added meaning. The faith of the child, which

had been affirmed by his godparents, needed to be certified by

the child himself, grown to the use of reason. Theodore evidently

had this Celtic rite in mind when he ruled: "We believe no one is

complete in baptism without the confirmation of a bishop; yet we

do not despair." And he further remarked: "Chrism was established

in the Nicene Synod. It is not a breach of order if the chrismal

napkin is laid again upon another who is baptized." So this

ancient British custom was a recognized part of the ritual of the

Christians in these islands whom Theodore was seeking to absorb

into his own organization.

FEET WASHING

     The history of feet washing as a ceremony of the Christian

Church is tantalizingly elusive. That pedilavium was practised by

the first Christians in response to our Lord's directive, "This

do as I have done unto you", is most probable. There are passing

references to this rite in the first centuries. Continued for

many years by the Eastern Church, feet washing eventually fell

from favour in the West. But it was carried out long enough to be

introduced among the earliest Celtic Christian. The practice of

washing the feet of those newly baptized was noted by Augustine,

but he denied the pedilavium was vital to their baptism.

Augustine remarked:

     Now, regarding feet washing: this was commanded by the 

     Lord as a form of humility, which he came to teach and

     appropriately demonstrated himself, electing the best time

     to inculcate a religious truth. But many, lest it appear to

     be tied to the sacrament of baptism, do not admit feet

     washing into their ritual. Some deny its usefulness

     altogether. Still others celebrate it at some appointed

     sacred time, perhaps on the third of the octave, carefully

     distinguishing it from the sacrament of baptism.

     Sir Edwyn Hoskyns, in his excursus on "The Liturgical use 

     of the Pedilavium" rightly explained the implications:

     There are indications in the ancient liturgies of the Church

     that the pedilavium once formed an integral part of the

     baptismal office. Saint Ambrose reminds the newly baptized

     of the Gospel lesson which had been read at the washing of

     their feet, when they had "gone up from the font." The

     author of the closely related treatise De Sacramentis adds

     that "the high priest was girt up (for though the presbyters

     also carried it out, yet the ministry is begun by the high

     priest) and washed thy feet." He also states that the Church

     in Rome did not have this custom, and suggests that this was

     "on account of the numbers". Presumably the ceremony took

     too much time.

     The rite seems to have persisted in certain areas in spite

of the ruling of the Synod of Elvira (306), which forbade priests

and clerics to wash the feet of those who had just been baptized,

and is found in the Gallic and Gothic services. The Missale

Gothicum, as its seventh item, included the rite: Dum pedes ejus

lavas, dicis, "Ego tibi lavo pedes; sicut Dominus noster Jesus

Christus fecit discipulis suis, to facias hospitibus et peregrinis, 

tit habeas vitam aeternam." There were similar rubrics in the 

Gallic service book, and also in the Bobbio Missal.

     That interest in pedilavium continued in the Spanish Church

is borne out by the ruling of the Council of Toledo (694) that it

should be performed only on Maundy Thursday. While its use

continued in the East, in Rome feet washing lapsed, but was for

some time practised by the congregation at Milan. But in Spain,

Gaul, and Germany and the various Celtic lands, feet washing 

long persisted, as is abundantly attested by the sources.

     F. E. Warren suggested that the Italian Augustine's demand

that the Celtic ecclesiastics should conform to the Roman method

of administering baptism was, in fact, a demand that they abolish

pedilavium. But in spite of this, feet washing was carried out in

several other connections in Celtic lands.

(Feet washing at baptism is nowhere taught in the Bible - it is

therefore a man-made tradition - Keith Hunt)

FEET WASHING FOR VISITORS

     As a gesture of hospitality pedilavium was used to make

guests comfortable. From his isolated retreat at Lindisfarne

Cuthbert used often to go forth to meet the brethren who came to

visit him for counsel, and, "when he had devoutly washed their

feet in warm water, he was sometimes compelled by them to take

off his shoes and to allow them to wash his feet". Even earlier

in Ireland, Brigit was reputed to have been accustomed to wash

the feet of her guests: "For she used to say that Christ was in

the person of every faithful guest ... The wizard and his wife,

... went to the dairy ... Brigit made them welcome, and washed

their feet, and gave them food". The same practice was followed

by the brethren on Iona, On one occasion Columba had a

presentiment that pilgrims were about to land on the island.

Calling one of the brothers he said, "Prepare the guesthouse

quickly, and draw water for washing the feet of guests."

(And in those days of sandle type footwear and dusty roads such a

custom was accept, no religious meaning was meant by it, except

as good Christian service - Keith Hunt)

FEET WASHING AND MIRACLES

     Feet washing was held to produce miraculous results. The

length to which this belief was carried by later hagiographers is

shown by this anecdote:  

     

     When Brigit's fame had sounded through Teffia, there was a

     certain devout virgin in Fir Tethbai, even Brig, daughter of

     Coimloch, who sent a message that Brigit should come and

     commune with her. So Brigit went, and Brig herself rose up

     to wash her [Brigit's] feet. At that time a devout woman lay

     in sickness. When they were washing Brigit's feet, she sent

     for the sick person who was in the girl's house, to bring

     her out of the tub some of the water which was put over

     Brigit's feet. It was brought to her accordingly, and she

     put it on her face, and straightway she was every whit

     whole, and after having been in sickness for a year she 

     was on that night one of the attendants.

     On another occasion Brigit "washed the feet of the nuns of

Cuil Fobair, and at that washing healed four nuns, to wit, a lame

one, and a blind, and a leper, and an insane". Cairan of Saigir

was also a believer in feet washing. When Crichid of Cluain,

Ciaran's farmer, went to Saigir to see his master, wolves killed

him. Ciaran went to the place where he lay and washed his feet.

As a result of this ceremony Crichid was restored to life. It may

well be that these comminatory stories were used to support a

practice which was falling into disuse? In the following stories

the miraculous is introduced to add authority to the waning

practice of pedilavium.

     Sometimes Cuthbert acted as guest-master in his own

establishment. On one occasion this saint, "having received him

[a guest] kindly in accordance with his wont, still thinking him

to be a man and not an angel, he washed his hands and feet and

wiped them with towels, and having in his humility rubbed his

guest's feet with his own hands to warm them on account of the

cold" was miraculously given spiritual insight to discern that he

was a visitor from heaven. Iona and its monks, too, witnessed

miracles in connection with pedilavium. A well had been cursed 

by magicians, so Columba "first raising his holy hand in invocation

of the name of Christ, washed his hands and feet; and after that,

with those that accompanied him, drank of the same water, which

he had blessed. And from that day, the demons withdrew from that

well."

(Doing a humble service as hand and foot washing could be honored

by the Father with miracles. God can perform miracles when and

how and to whom He pleases - a humble attitude of service the

Almighty can respect with miracles if He so chooses - Keith Hunt)

     Another use for pedilavium was the fostering of humility and

penitence. This is illustrated by a story concerning Patrick, who

     went into the district of Mag Luirg, and his horses were

     forcibly taken by the tribe of the Sons of Erc, and he

     cursed the people of that country. But bishop Maine of the

     Hui-Ailella besought Pattrick to forgive his brethren, and

     Patrick weakened the malediction. And Maine washed Patrick's

     feet with his hair and with his tears, and he drove the

     horses into a meadow and cleansed their hoofs in honour of

     Patrick.

     Even the "feet" of horses were washed as a gesture of

humility and repentance. Brigit demonstrated her devotion and

meekness by washing the feet even of lepers:

     Once upon a time two lepers came to Brigit to be healed of

     the leprosy. Brigit bade one of the two lepers to wash the

     other. He did so. "Do thou", said Brigit to the other leper,

     "tend and wash thy comrade even as he hath ministered unto

     thee." "Save the time that we have seen," saith he, "we will

     not see one another. What, O nun, dost thou deem it just

     that I, a healthy man, with my fresh limbs and my fresh

     raiment, should wash that loathsome leper there, with his

     livid limbs falling from him? A custom like that is not fit

     for me." So Brigit washed the lowly miserable leper.

     Evidently the initial washing had healed the first leper,

who then did not wish to recontaminate himself with his leprous

companion. The saint showed her humility by washing his feet.

"Great indeed was the humility of Colum Cille, for it was he

himself that used to take their shoes off his monks, and that

used to wash their feet for them." Other stories might be added,

but one more will suffice. "In the miraculous legend of St

Brendon (+ 578) it is related that he sailed with his monks to

the island of Sheep [Faeroe], and on sherethursdays, after

souper, he wesshe theyr feet and hyssed them tyke as our Lorde

dyd to his dyscuples." As this story portrays, it was on Maundy

Thursdays that this ceremony was popularly practised among Celtic

Christians. It was carried out by Brigit, following the example

of Christ and the disciples in the upper room:

     Brigit went to a certain church in the land of Teffia to

     celebrate Easter. The prioress of the church said to her

     maidens that on Maundy Thursday one of them should minister

     unto the old men and to the weak and feeble persons who were

     biding in the church. Not one of them was found for

     ministering. Said Brigit: "I to-day will minister unto them." 

     [There were] four of the sick persons who were biding

     in the church, even a consumptive man, and a lunatic, and 

     a blind man, and a leper. And Brigit did service to these

     four, and they were healed from every disease that lay upon

     them.

     Apparently no impropriety attached to a woman's washing the

saints' feet, as in New Testament times. Other details of the

story, the unwillingness of anyone to perfonn the act and the

uncleanness of some who were present hark back to the initial

narrative of the institution of this Christian custom by our

Lord." Bede noted that Cuthbert sometimes would not remove his

shoes of animal skin from one Easter to the next; and, the

historian added, "then only for the washing of the feet which

takes place on Maundy Thursday".

(By this time we also note that the false Easter had taken root

and hence Thursday was considered the evening before the Friday

crucifixion of Christ - Keith Hunt)

     As may readily be concluded, Maundy Thursday was specially

devoted to the caring for the needs of the body in preparation

for Easter among later Celtic Christians. The hair of the monks

was then shorn. The brethren also washed their heads in honour of

the season. In the north of England Maundy Thursday was called

Skyre Thursday, probably from Old Norse, shira, to purify. In the

south of England it was known as Shere Thursday, and so

mistakenly its etymology has been traced to the cutting of hair

on that day.

     On one occasion Brendan reached the island of Procurator,

who prepared a bath for the voyager and his disciples, for it was

the day of the Lord's Supper, on another Kentigern is reported to

have washed the feet of lepers on the Saturday before Palm

Sunday.

(And so the Celtic church had been corrupted by the church of

Rome with Easter and the rest of the corrupt traditions of the

Easter season - Keith Hunt)

     As has already been mentioned in connection with the

ceremonies carried out in the ritual of baptism, pedilavium

followed the immersion and preceded Communion in the Celtic rite.

It is said of Cuthbert, that he laid "his hand on those who had

been lately baptized ... when his hands and feet had been washed

in accordance with the custom of hospitality ..." The import of

this appears to be that the catechumen, after being immersed, was

blessed by the laying on of the cleric's hand. Then his own hands

and feet were washed as he was accepted into full fellowship with

his brethren. Feet washing following immersion is also found in

the Gothic, Gallic, Bobbio, and Stowe orders of service for

baptism.

(Again a custom of men - the traditions of men - Keith Hunt)

     Pedilavium seems to have been employed in connection with

the Communion service. In the Stowe Missal it preceded the first

Communion which the recently baptized celebrated. In the

penitential of Columbanus it was ruled that "he who unwashed

receives the Holy Bread, [should receive] twelve strokes". It has

been suggested that this "holy bread" referred to the "Eulogia,"

a loaf of ordinary bread, which was cut up into small pieces and

distributed to the poor after the celebration of Communion. It is

possible, however, that this regulation, influenced by Celtic

Christians in Ireland, actually had reference to the washing of

hands and feet before the Communion service, as is illustrated by

the usage in the Stowe Missal. The Celt's adherence to a literal

interpretation of the Scriptures seems to have led him to follow

the procedure of the upper room exactly. For in that service

Christ washed the feet of his disciples before he distributed the

bread and wine to his followers.

(Not so, when the true chronology of that evening is understood,

but the main point, the foot washing should be on the evening of

the Passover night - once a year - see my many studies on the

Passover - Keith Hunt)

     In a narrative recorded to show the power of Columba over

wind and storm an incident is embedded which throws light on one

use of feet washing at Iona. By God's protection, Adamnan wrote,

"we arrived at the harbour of the island of Io, after the third

hour of the day; and later, after the washing of hands and feet,

we entered the church with the brothers, and at the sixth hour we

celebrated with them the holy ceremonies of the mass." This, too,

suggests that at Iona a recognized preparation for the

celebration of Communion was the washing of hands and feet. 

L. Gougaud inquired, "Was it a ritual ablution?" The travellers

arrived by boat, and hence would not be so footsore and dirty. 

If it be granted that this was a ritual washing of feet, and like

the pedilavium, preceded the Communion, an interesting feature 

of the Celtic service emerges. In the ninth century and later the

Irish and Scottish Christian reformers, the Culdees, continued

pedilavium: "At the washing of feet the Beati is recited as long

as the washing lasts. After that comes the sermon on the

Washing."

     In the penitential of Theodore is a ruling that "washing the

feet of laymen is also within the liberty of the monastery". In

spite of the indifference of the fathers and the proscriptions of

the councils Theodore evidently decided, when he framed his

penitentials, that pedilavium was too deeply rooted in Britain to

eradicate at the sweep of the pen. He therefore left each

ecclesiastical community free to decide whether it should be

carried out.

(The foot-washing was obviously felt connected to some Christian

rite - baptism or the so-called "Lord's supper" service. It

became confused by many as to when it should be done by the

saints of God. Some no doubt still held to the correct time to

observe it - Passover evening on the 14th of the first month in

God's calendar - Keith Hunt)

THE LORD'S SUPPER

     The most important and frequently repeated service of the

Christian Church has been the celebration of the Lord's Supper.

Through the centuries it has been given many names, each

suggestive of some aspect of its significance. That there ever

was a peculiarly Celtic liturgy has been doubted by H. Leclercq.

The later Celtic Christians travelled widely, he felt, and

incorporated into their celebration a variety of rites and

ceremonies. The result was a conspicuous difference between

Celtic and Roman usages. Gildas (+ 570) asserted that a variation

existed between the British and Roman liturgies: "The Britons are

at variance with the whole world, and are opposed to Roman

customs, not only in the Mass, but also in their tonsure." The

Council of Clovesho (747), in its thirteenth canon, ordered the

adoption of the Roman sacramental usages throughout England,

stressing particularly "in Baptismi officio, in Missarum

celebrations". These differences were also noted by Bede. 

The "Catalogue of the Saints of Ireland" likewise recorded that 

the Christians of that island differed in their usages. While the

first order "observed one mass, one celebration", the second

"celebrated different masses, and had different rules", and the

third still "different rules and masses". This statement reflects

the various parties among Celtic Christians. Some evidently 

were slower at accepting the changes the Romanizing party used.

     

     When Queen Margaret came to Scotland, one of the first

points she noted, according to her biographer, was that there

were some of the remnants of the early Celtic Christians "in

certain districts of the Scots, who were wont to celebrate mass

contrary to the custom of the whole church; with I know not what

barbarous rite. This the queen, fired with the zeal for God, so

sought to destroy and uproot, that henceforth none appeared in

the whole Scottish nation who dared do such a thing." Could this

"barbarous rite" be pedilavium?

     The available evidence has been sifted by F. E. Warren, A.

A. King, H. Leclercq, L. Gougaud, and others. A detailed study of

the liturgy is outside the scope of this chapter, and only essential 

differences between the Celtic usages and other forms must suffice 

for this sketch.

     Warren called attention to "a peculiar feature of the Celtic

Liturgy, at least in its Irish form". It was "a multiplicity of

collects", the Lord's Prayer, and Scripture lections. There was

seemingly no use made of incense. A unique ceremony is

illustrated by a practice at the island of Iona:

     At another time, there came to the saint from the province

     of the men of Mumu a stranger who humbly kept himself out 

     of sight, as much as he could, so that none knew that he was a

     bishop. But yet that could not remain hidden from the saint.

     For on the next Lord's day, when he was bidden by the saint

     to prepare, according to custom, the body of Christ, he

     called the saint to assist; him, so that they should as two

     presbyters together break the Lord's bread. Thereupon the

     saint, going to the altar, suddenly looked upon his face,

     and thus addressed him: "Christ bless you, brother; break

     this bread alone, according to the episcopal rite."

     Evidently it was the custom for two priests or one bishop to

celebrate at the same time. There have survived no Celtic

consecration prayers, but that they were probably said audibly is

witnessed by an incident in which Columba "heard a certain priest

consecrating the sacred elements of the Eucharist".

     Communion consisted of both kinds. In one of his addresses

Columbanus recommended: "If you thirst, drink the Fountain of

life; if hunger, eat the Bread of life. Blessed are they who

hunger for this Bread and thirst for this Fountain; for ever

eating and drinking they still long to eat and drink." But

stronger than this evidence, which might be interpreted

metaphorically, is the warning Columbanus gave to any who 

injured the chalice with his teeth! In Secundus' Hymn eulogizing 

Patrick, that saint is described as one "who draws heavenly wine 

in heavenly cups, and gives drink to the people of God from a

spiritual chalice". The two daughters of Loegaire asked how they

might see Christ face to face. Patrick replied, "Ye cannot see

Christ unless ye first taste of death, and unless ye receive

Christ's Body and his Blood." This was also the practice at the

time the Antiphonary of Bangor was compiled. A hymn preserved 

in it, sung while the people were communicating began, "Come, ye

saints, take the body of Christ, drinking his holy blood, by which 

you were redeemed." Moiling of Luachair once administered

the chalice to a person who was a leper. The Wfrtzburg glossator,

in his exposition of the Christian concept of salvation through

Christ, recorded that eternal life came "through the material

blood which poured from his side when he was on the cross, and

through the spiritual blood which is offered every clay upon the

altar." There is no evidence in the sources that the actual

Presence at Communion was believed by Celtic Christians.

     The custom of the primitive Church was to mix water with the

wine of the eucharistic cup. Twice Columba is reputed to have

changed water into wine miraculously. A later comminatory story

informs us that on one occasion Patrick baptized an unborn

infant, and the commentator remarked, "aqua baptismi filii, ipsa

est aqua communionis mulieris." Stokes suggested that this phrase

indicates that the water which had been used for the baptism of

the infant provided water for administering Communion to the

dying mother. A rubric in the Stowe directed, "Wine then on water

into the chalice",  and an old poem read:

     When a shower of gore had speckled 

     The breast of Diamait's steed

     The water wherewith Grip (the horse's name] is washed 

     Is not clear for the Sacrifice.

     Some form of service was performed, whenever possible, to

provide Communion for the dying. For instance, "When Patrick 

had completed his victorious career in the present world, ... he

received from bishop Tassach communion and sacrifice." Stories 

to the same effect are preserved of Brendan. For example, he

resurrected a mermaid, and "after the girl had received the Body

of Christ and his Blood she died without anxiety"; and another:

"The old man pointed out to them the land of which they were in

search, i.e. the Land of Promise, and having received the Body of

Christ and his Blood he went to heaven." Cuthbert sent a priest

to the dying queen of King Egfrid of Northumberland to administer

"the sacrament of the body and blood of the Lord". On his own

deathbed Cuthbert received the Blessed Sacrament in both kinds

from the hands of Herefrith, abbot of Lindisfame. The Annals

record that Maelseachlainn More, the "pillar of the dignity and

nobility of the west of the world died ... after intense penance

for his sins and transgressions, after receiving the body of Christ 

and his blood, after being anointed by the hands of Amhalghaidh, 

successor of Patrick".

(And so we see once more how true practices of the Passover -

bread and fruit of the vine, foot-washing, had got all mixed up

by various parts of the Celtic church as the centuries moved on

and as the Roman church entered Britain, bringing with it the

false teachings of Easter and all the other man-made trappings of

the Easter season as taught and practiced by Rome - Keith Hunt)

HEALING SERVICE

     That a service of healing, similar to the injunction of St

James, was carried out among Celtic Christians is suggested by

this narrative in the life of Samson:

     And it came to pass when he had entered within the palace,

     God as we may suppose, exercising power on his behalf, he

     found a certain great chief harassed by suffering at the

     hands of a demon; and, when he was aware of this, St Samson

     came to him and, having taken oil, blessed it and fully

     anointed him on the head, face and breast while many watched

     him; and, with God's help, he who had been sick was made

     perfectly whole. 

     An office of visiting the sick of later date has survived  but no 

service books of the time of Patrick or Columba are to be found in 

their original form. But J. F. Kenney has well noted:

     Of the importance of the Antiphonary of Bangor there is no

     question. It may be the oldest extant Irish manuscript: it

     is the oldest to which precise dates can - with probability

     - be assigned. Apart from some fragments it is the only

     record surviving of the old Irish church services unaffected

     by the Romanizing movement of the seventh and eighth

     centuries, and is one of the very few western liturgical

     books of the seventh century which we possess ... Through

     its pages the general student can receive the voice of the

     daily worship of God carried across twelve centuries from

     those famous, but shadowy, monasteries of ancient Ireland.

     With the help of this book, the Bible, and a book of whatever 

hymns might have been composed by the day of the Antiphonary, 

"the abbot would be in a position to direct all the offices and 

devotions, habitual or special, of the monastery."

     Included in it were suggestions for conducting the Divine Office

during Easter and on Easter day; on Sabbaths and Sunday in

Easter-tide; on Sabbaths and Sundays through the year; and on the

Feasts of the Martyrs.

     The general picture emerges, from a study of the sources

available, which portrays Celtic Christian services tending to

resemble earliest Christian practice, and as having an

individuality of their own, and characteristics which marked them

out as singular. Each differed from other Celtic rites. This

complete lack of uniformity, this apparent improvisation of order

and content, of prayers and blessings, probably contributed to

the weakening of the position of the Celtic Church and eased its

absorption into the flood tide of general Western Christianity.

..........

To be continued with "Ministry"

NOTE:

YES  WITH  NO  UNIFORM  CELTIC  CHRISTIANITY,  BUT  INDIVIDUAL 

CELTIC  GROUPS  RETAINING  OR  NOT  RETAINING  BIBLE  TRUTH  AS 

THE  CENTURIES  MOVED  ON,  THAT  SITUATION  MADE  IT  EASIER 

FOR  THE  ROMAN  CHURCH  TO  DOMINATE  AND  FINALLY  WIN  OUT 

OVER  THE  CELTIC  CHURCH  OF  BRITAIN.  IT  TOOK  A  NUMBER  OF 

CENTURIES  BUT  THE  CHURCH  OF  ROME  FINALLY  DID  WIPE  OUT 

ALL  AND  ANY  TRUTH  OF  PRACTICES  LIKE  THE  7TH  DAY  SABBATH 

AND  PASSOVER  ON  THE  14TH  OF  THE  FIRST  MONTH  OF  GOD'S 

CALENDAR.  BY  THE  11TH  CENTURY  AD  ROME  HAD  ESTABLISHED 

ITS  FALSE  TEACHINGS  AND  PRACTICES  IN  BRITAIN.

Keith Hunt